GARDENS  AND 
THEIR  MEANING 

DORA  WILLIAMS 


C 


Div.    of  Voc.   Educatio 


GARDENS   AND 
THEIR  MEANING 


BY 


DORA  WILLIAMS 


GINN  AND  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON     •     NEW  YORK     •     CHICAGO     •     LONDON 


COPYRIGHT,  1911,  BY  DORA  WILLIAMS 

ALL   RIGHTS    RESERVED 

911.12 


gtf>en«um 


c;iNN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

The  aim  of  this  book  is  twofold  :  to  show  the  importance 
of  science  in  the  use  of  spade  and  hoe ;  and  to  urge  that  a 
garden  for  education  may  be,  not  merely  in  substance  but  in 
spirit,  a  corner  of  the  great  world.  Protected  it  certainly 
should  be,  but  not  walled  in.  Outside  and  within  the  garden 
precincts  are  at  work  nearly  identical  social  forces,  and  the 
same  joys  and  sorrows.  The  interchange  not  only  of  sym- 
pathy but  of  plans  and  projects  will  be  frequent.  Thus  the 
path  between  the  big  and  the  little  world  must  be  free  and 
unrestricted.  It  will  not  be  a  "one-way  road";  the  gate 
swings  easily  in  both  directions. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  these  suggestions  will  appeal 
equally  to  everybody.  There  are,  in  fact,  many  persons  who 
are  satisfied  with  the  schooling  that  deliberately  takes  young 
folks  out  of  real  life  for  a  time  and  then  puts  them  back 
again.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  this  little  volume  will  make 
friends  among  the  hosts  of  parents,  teachers,  and  social 
workers  who  are  trying  to  increase  community  efficiency  by 
giving  opportunity  for  richer  life  during  school  years.  I  shall 
indeed  be  content  if  through  words  of  mine  their  happy  task 
shall  in  any  way  be  lightened. 

Many  have  helped,  both  consciously  and  unconsciously,  in 
the  making  of  this  book.  They  are  indeed  so  many  that,  to 
my  regret,  in  expressing  here  my  gratitude  I  cannot  call  each 
friendly  contributor  by  name. 


674499 


iv  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

There  are  some,  however,  to  whom  I  am  peculiarly  indebted. 
First  among  these  is  Dr.  Colin  A.  Scott,  to  whom  I  owe 
the  Social  Education  note  in  the  book  and  whose  criticisms 
have  been  of  the  greatest  value.  Dr.  David  F.  Lincoln  and 
Dr.  George  W.  Field  have  put  their  time  and  experience  at 
my  service  and  have  generously  reviewed  the  manuscript. 
Professor  Thomas  N.  Carver  of  Harvard  University,  Edward 
M.  Forbush,  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  Loring 
Underwood,  and  John  Graham  Brooks  have  been  so  kind  as 
to  read  critically  certain  chapters.  To  Miss  Elizabeth  Mail- 
man, of  the  Rice  School,  Boston,  I  am  deeply  grateful  for 
her  constant  cooperation  in  the  practical  work  with  children. 

My  acknowledgments  would  be  incomplete  without  men- 
tion of  the  Education  Committee  of  the  Twentieth  Century 
Club,  under  whose  auspices,  friendly  and  financial,  probably 
the  first  real  city  garden  on  this  side  of  the  water  was  started, 
and  of  the  Boston  School  Garden  Committee,  by  means  of 
whose  stanch  support  further  pioneer  work,  under  the  devoted 
leadership  of  Miss  Anne  Withington,  was  made  possible. 

My  own  collection  of  photographs  has  been  substantially 
increased  through  the  interest  of  friends.  Among  those  who 
have  contributed  with  great  generosity,  and  whom  I  wish 
especially  to  thank,  are  Miss  Elizabeth  Hill  of  Groton, 
and  my  friends  Mr.  and  Mrs.  H.  B.  Fullerton  of  Medford, 

Long  Island. 

DORA  WILLIAMS 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION I 

The  garden  a  combination  of  space  and  power.  Agricultural  possibili- 
ties shown  in  small  areas.  Children  as  producers.  The  advantage  of 
the  productive  life.  A  garden  teaches  beauty  and  good  order.  It  re- 
veals nature's  laws.  Parents  recognize  the  value  of  children's  garden- 
ing. A  garden  the  pivot  of  family  life.  Social  forces  are  let  loose.  A 
garden  gives  respect  for  law  and  order,  and  a  chance  for  honorable 
profit  and  for  the  cooperative  life. 

CHAPTER  I.  WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH 
WHILE 15 

Gardening  in  the  school  program.  Influence  of  the  garden  upon  the 
school.  WTork-mates.  Mutual  aid.  The  real  school  garden  is  worked 
and  planned  by  children.  Difficulties.  A  philanthropist's  garden. 
School  gardens  at  Hampton,  Virginia.  Gardening  in  graded  schools. 
The  teacher's  contribution.  The  school  garden  an  organism.  Placing 
responsibility  upon  children.  Study  of  child  types.  Development  of 
initiative.  Opportunities  for  investigation.  Visits  to  model  gardens. 
Respect  due  to  the  farmer.  Results  obtained.  Garden  ownership  :  com- 
munal, individual,  or  cooperative.  Efficiency  balanced  against  coopera- 
tion. Incidental  values  of  gardening.  Practice  in  the  art  of  living. 


CHAPTER  II.    LITTLE  STUDIES  IN  COOPERATION   ...     35 

Science  and  cooperation  prominent  in  a  successful  school  garden.  Both 
necessary  in  school  and  in  life.  The  making  of  leaders.  Competition  in 
school  life.  Cooperation.  Self-organized  garden  work.  Girls'  report. 
Reactions  of  different  temperaments  to  cooperative  work.  The  dull 
boy.  The  teacher's  comprehension  enlarges.  A  school  program  will 
provide  exercises  in  cooperation. 


vi  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  III.    SITUATION  AND  SOIL 45 

The  school  garden  a  form  of  outdoor  laboratory.  Size  and  site  rela- 
tively unimportant.  Window  gardens  in  Boston.  The  ideal  situation. 
Sunshine  a  necessity.  Adaptation  of  the  school  yard.  Use  of  the 
vacant  lot.  Park  lands.  Transfer  of  classes.  Transformation  of  one 
school  yard.  Fence  or  no  fence.  Soil  testing.  Treatment  of  the  land. 
Enrichment  by  manure,  guano,  ashes,  prepared  dressings,  and  street 
sweepings.  Skimming  the  land.  Green  manure.  Inoculating  cow- 
peas  with  nitrogen  bacteria.  The  compost  heap,  Garden  economies. 

CHAPTER  IV.    PLOTTING  AND  PLANNING 61 

Waste  no  space.  Plotting  done  with  care  and  deliberation.  Plotting 
and  planning  the  business  of  pupils,  not  teachers.  Practice  in  arith- 
metic. Contrivances  simplify  measuring.  Plan  drawn  to  scale.  The 
kitchen  garden;  flowers,  experimental  beds,  cold  frame.  Children 
cannot  plan  as  far  ahead  as  elders.  Arrangement  of  flowering  plants. 
Arrangement  of  vegetable  beds.  Visit  to  a  model  market  garden. 
School  gardening  must  not  be  merely  an  imitation  of  a  market  garden. 
Arrangement  adapted.  Self-organized  work  for  groups.  False  ideas  in 
arrangement.  Reactions  to  the  responsibility  of  planting  and  plotting. 
Experimental  beds  develop  scientific  interest.  Some  schoolboys  plan 
to  raise  rice.  Plotting  and  planning  a  garden  is  good  discipline. 

CHAPTER  V.  A  WORD  FOR  GOOD  TOOLS 76 

A  clamshell  for  a  tool.  Need  of  the  right  implements.  A  visit  to 
an  agricultural  supply  house.  History  of  agriculture  told  by  tools. 
Three  generic  tools.  A  simple  outfit.  Cost.  Cooperative  ownership 
of  expensive  tools.  Avoid  cheap  tools.  Care  of  tools  and  tool  house. 
Inspection  made  by  the  children.  Woodworking  tools  a  valuable 
supplement  to  a  garden  outfit.  Suitable  dress. 

CHAPTER  VI.    PLANTING 82 

Idle  land  claimed  by  weeds.  The  planting  season  lasts  the  year  round. 
Three  periods  :  early,  midsummer,  and  late.  Plant  nourishment.  Crop 
rotation  as  opposed  to  the  one-crop  system.  Foods  supplied  at  dif- 
ferent depths.  Shifting  crops.  Kinds  of  crops :  catch  crops,  cover 
crops,  green  manure.  Devices  in  planting.  Quality  of  seed.  WThere 
to  buy.  How  to  recognize  good  seeds.  A  simple  rule  for  testing 


CONTENTS  vii 


seed.  Seeds  for  a  whole  farm  tested  by  a  schoolgirl.  Preparation  of 
a  seed  bed.  Sifting.  The  ideal  soil  resembles  soot.  Seeds  grown  in 
"  fined  soil "  outstrip  others.  Distance  apart  and  depth.  A  planting 
box.  Approximate  rules  for  planting  different  kinds  of  seeds.  Chil- 
dren are  averse  to  "thinning  out."  Seeds  planted  instead  of  sown. 
Steps  in  the  process  of  planting :  drilling,  laying  in  seeds,  packing, 
mulching,  labeling.  Indoor  planting  for  future  transplanting ;  for  ex- 
periments. Growing  under  glass.  How  to  make  a  cold  frame.  A  hot- 
bed. Planting  bulbs. 


CHAPTER  VII.    THE  ART  OF  MAKING  THINGS  GROW     .     99 

Tending  the  soil  follows  planting.  A  caked  soil  sheds  water.  The 
roots  starve ;  weeds  take  possession.  A  dust  blanket  conserves  mois- 
ture. Cultivation  or  dry  farming.  The  art  of  watering.  A  plant  tonic. 
Irrigation  on  a  grand  scale  :  at  Milan,  in  Dakota.  Irrigation  for  little 
gardens.  Never  expose  seedlings  to  a  hot  sun.  Plants  easy  to  trans- 
plant. Devices  for  transplanting.  Setting  out  shrubs.  A  few  favorite 
shrubs.  Good  luck  in  gardening  means  devotion. 


CHAPTER  VIII.   JUST  HOW 112 

Beans  :  Warm,  dry  soil.  Moisture.  Several  plantings.  Beware  of  rust.  — 
Beets :  Rich,  light  soil.  Constant  cultivation.  First  thinnings  for  greens. 
Cooking.  —  Cabbage :  Cabbage  the  whole  year  through.  Three  varieties. 
Generous  manuring.  The  cabbage  worm  and  other  enemies.  Cooking. 
A  cabbage  gone  to  seed.  The  cabbage  tribe.  —  Carrots :  The  earth 
well  tilled.  Cultivate  carefully.  Early  carrots  and  late.  Cooking.  — 
Lettuce :  Cos  and  cabbage.  Indoor  planting.  Cultivate  constantly. 
Preparation  for  table.  —  Onions :  Sets  or  seeds.  Rich  earth.  Cultiva- 
tion important.  Root  maggot,  smut,  and  blight.  —  Parsley :  Slow  ger- 
minating. Medium  soil.  Cultivate  well.  Use  as  garnish  and  seasoning. 
—  Radish  :  Three  varieties.  Fine,  rich  earth.  Soil  well  worked.  Plant 
successively.  Thin  well.  Store  winter  radishes  in  sand.  —  Spinach  : 
Secure  a  quick  growth  by  plant  tonic.  Record  of  one  garden.  Prepara- 
tion for  the  table.  —  Tomato  :  The  original  tomato.  Plant  early.  Trans- 
plant several  times.  One  ounce  gives  two  thousand  plants.  Fertilize 
with  manure.  Plants  must  not  spindle.  Make  supports.  Pick  fruit  as 
soon  as  ripe.  Tomato  worm.  —  Herbs :  Mint,  parsley,  sage,  and  thyme. 
Peppermint,  lavender,  and  catnip.  Light  earth.  Cultivate  well.  Dry 
in  the  garret. 


viii  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  IX.   GARDEN  FOES  AND  GARDEN  FRIENDS    .   127 

The  gardener  a  sponsor  for  his  plants.  Weeds  have  potential  value. 
Cultivation  of  weeds  and  unfamiliar  plants.  Learn  to  know  common 
weeds.  Weeding  with  the  hoe.  Sterilizing  soil  not  practical.  A  cheer- 
ful weeder.  Fungus  enemies :  potato  scab,  bean  rust,  corn  smut. 
Insect  enemies.  Food  destroyed  yearly  by  insects.  Families  should 
unite  to  exterminate  them.  Mouth  parts.  Chewing  insects  destroyed 
by  poison  ;  sucking  insects  destroyed  by  emulsion.  Recognize  insects 
in  various  stages.  The  cabbage  butterfly.  Potato  beetle.  Hibernation. 
Stir  soil,  leaving  it  rough  during  winter.  Habits  of  corn  worm,  cucumber 
beetle,  rose  beetle,  cutworm.  These  insects  afford  material  for  nature 
study.  Insect  friends  :  lady  beetle,  tiger  beetle,  ichneumon  fly,  dragon 
fly.  The  toad.  The  earthworm.  Children's  attitude  toward  worms.  Our 
debt  to  birds.  The  gardener's  pledge. 


CHAPTER  X.    SIDE  SHOWS 142 

Protecting  the  birds.  Birds  that  will  nest  in  boxes.  Flickers  in  summer 
cottages.  Bluebirds.  Adaptation  of  bird  houses  to  their  occupants. 
Glass  side  gives  chance  for  observation.  Insulation  of  a  martin  box. 
Provision  for  drinking  and  bathing.  A  bird  fountain  in  Worcester. 
Bees.  An  observation  hive  at  a  Boston  school.  Bees  in  London  at 
the  Nature  Study  Garden ;  at  an  English  home  school.  Poultry  at  the 
Hyannis  Normal  School.  A  rain  gauge.  How  to  measure  rainfall. 
Woodworking  and  gardening.  The  sundial  and  its  construction. 
Mottoes.  Beauty  a  feature  of  children's  gardens.  Arbor,  pergola, 
summerhouse.  Backyard  possibilities.  In  Salem.  In  an  English 
factory  town.  Increase  in  comfort  and  pleasure. 


CHAPTER  XI.    NEW  LIFE  IN  OLD  SUBJECTS     .     .     .     .     .    159 

Children  not  often  prepared  for  the  life  immediately  before  them.  Old 
education  academic.  School  exercises  to-day  consist  of  two  sorts  :  real 
activities  and  the  acquiring  of  tools.  Real  activities  increase  in  prepara- 
tion. Children's  compositions.  Gardening  vitalizes  the  school  curricu- 
lum. The  demands  made  by  gardening  include  almost  the  entire  school 
course  in  arithmetic.  It  develops  the  business  sense.  Garden  subjects 
basis  of  real  letters.  Geography.  The  artistic  sense ;  drawing.  Good 
cooking  encouraged  by  growing  the  foodstuffs.  Nature-study  material. 
Nature  study  is  made  less  artificial.  The  beginnings  of  scientific  inves- 
tigation. The  nature-study  teacher  relieved  of  strain.  Teacher  and 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

children  follow  together  the  scientific  method.  Freedom  from  the 
old-style  course  of  study.  Little  housekeepers.  Wasted  school  days. 
Gardening  adapted  to  the  demands  of  new  methods. 

CHAPTER  XII.    THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC    ...  179 

Gardening  all  the  year  round.  Calendar  for  a  twelvemonth.  The 
summer  holidays.  Neglect  of  one  garden  means  injury  to  all.  Measures 
adopted  to  make  work  continuous.  School-garden  records.  A  boy's 
diary. 

CHAPTER  XIII.    THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE 194 

School  gardening  leads  to  a  life  interest  in  agriculture.  Study  of 
country  conditions.  The  large  producer  contrasted  with  the  struggling 
old-time  farmer.  The  expert  wins.  Present  European  conditions.  The 
revolt  against  ignorance  and  oppression.  Cooperative  agriculture  in 
Belgium  and  France.  The  "  cooperative "  a  means  of  education. 
Mutual  aid  a  fundamental  principle  of  life.  Need  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge and  cooperation  among  the  farmers 'of  our  own  country.  Efforts 
that  are  being  made  to  spread  modern  methods  and  to  unite  the 
farmers.  Begin  with  the  children.  Train  young  people  in  coopera- 
tion and  in  science.  School  gardens  are  a  preparation  for  the  new 
agriculture. 

APPENDIX 215 

INDEX 233 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR 

MEANING' 

INTRODUCTION 

Train  the  children,  each  in  its  own  little  garden,  to  respect  fruit  trees, 
honorable  profit,  industry,  beauty  and  good  order:  it  is  the  summary  of  all 
Gospels  to  man.  —  "  New  Letters  of  Thomas  Carlyle." 

"  Space  to  let  with  power."  This  sign  advertises  the  re- 
sources of  a  large  machine  shop.  Space  with  power.  What 
words  could  better  describe  a  garden  ?  The  space  is  self- 
evident.  The  power,  they  say,  no  man  has  ever  fully  meas- 
ured. It  is  a  wonderful  combination  of  sun,  rain,  and  the 
invisible  forces  of  the  soil.  This  power  is  all  ready  to  be 
turned  on.  All  it  needs  is  men  who  are  skillful  enough  to 
guide  it. 

Thus  looked  upon,  a  garden  is  a  great  fact.  We  realize, 
however,  that  its  importance  does  not  depend  upon  its  size. 
Small  plots  may  have  great  meaning.  They  not  only  vitally 
affect  the  economies  of  a  nation,  but,  rightly  understood,  they 
give  insight  into  the  great  movement  of  agriculture.  At  the 
outset  it  is  well  to  remind  ourselves  that  agriculture  is  as  truly 
a  social  problem  as  a  scientific  one.  That  is  to  say,  it  involves 
not  only  wheat  and  corn  but  human  beings  as  well.  In  these 
pages,  therefore,  we  propose  to  study  a  very  small  garden, 
which  shall  be  carried  on  by  very  young  people. 
•  Carlyle  hit  it  when  he  said  that  children  could  be  trained 
in  their  little  gardens  to  respect  fruit  trees,  honorable  profit, 


AND  THEIR  MEANING 

beauty,  and  good  order.  Surely  any  combination  of  space  and 
power  which,  rightly  utilized,  could  produce  results  so  essen- 
tial for  citizenship  would  be  well  worth  the  price.  By  "honor- 
able profit "  he  means,  of  course,  profit  through  production. 
Plainly  this  is  a  garden's  special  contribution.  Children  in 
this  way  become  producers.  Any  ten-year-old  who  raises  a 
handful  of  radishes  for  breakfast,  a  fine  head  of  cabbage  for 
dinner,  and  a  bunch  of  sweet  peas  for  "  mother's  table  "  has 
already  tasted  the  delights  of  the  productive  life.  Having 
thus  early  become  a  producer,  a  boy%or  girl  in  later  life  will 
hardly  be  satisfied  with  the  treadmill  existence  of  the  middle- 
man. The  result  will  be  that  we  shall  get  more  first-rate 
producers  and  fewer  second-rate  citizens. 

That  society  to-day  is  swarming  with  middlemen  —  with 
clerks  and  agents  and  bookkeepers  —  we  are  well  aware. 
Though  useful  in  making  wealth  available,  this  class  adds 
nothing  directly  to  the  wealth  of  the  world.  Besides,  the 
supply  far  outstrips  the  demand.  In  consequence  the  average 
middleman  leads  a  life  that  is  joyless  and  poorly  paid,  and  he 
is,  moreover,  haunted  continually  by  the  fear  of  being  displaced 
by  young  and  eager  applicants.  For  this  overwhelming  pro- 
portion of  "go-betweens"  we  have  ourselves  to  thank.  It  is 
the  logical  outcome  of  the  schooling  that  has  been  dealt  out 
to  country  and  city  children  alike,  fitting  them  almost  exclu- 
sively for  the  clerical,  the  "  clean-handed,"  occupations. 

How  easy  for  a  young  person  to  drift  into  this  current. 
On  approaching  their  tee*ns  boys  and  girls  get  restless.  They 
long  to  push  out  a  little  into  the  larger  world.  Fathers  and 
mothers  see  no  harm  in  this.  They  see,  on  the  contrary,  cer- 
tain advantages  in  letting  children  enlarge  their  horizon  and 
satisfy  their  love  of  adventure  by  getting  into  a  wholesome 
relation  with  the  real  activities  of  the  world.  The  youngsters," 
on  reaching  the  crossroads,  naturally  take  the  beaten  path. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

They  follow  the  lines  of  least  resistance  and  catch  up  some 
sort  of  trading.  They  sell  papers,  perhaps,  or  peddle  eggs 
from  the  country  on  commission.  In  one  neighborhood,  for 
instance,  a  lad,  last  winter,  became  agent  for  a  brand  of 
chocolate.  In  the  business  district,  among  prominent  men 
whose  offices  he  visits  at  stated  intervals,  he  soon  worked  up 
a  regular  route.  In  accordance  with  a  watchful  father's  coun- 
sel his  small  business  is  conducted  with  an  exactness  that 
might  represent  thousands. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  just  one  boy  this  experience  is  ad- 
mirable. But  the  field  should  be  surveyed  as  well  from  a  dif- 
ferent angle.  It  is  plain  that  in  such  cases  the  youngsters  are 
becoming  in  truth  small  shopkeepers  —  in  a  word,  middle- 
men. Each  day  they  gain  a  little  more  skill  and  a  little  more 
interest  in  negotiating  cleverly  between  producer  and  con- 
sumer. This  is  exhilarating.  They  do  not  realize,  nor  do  we, 
that  they  are  being  inevitably  sucked  into  the  ever-rising 
flood  of  middlemen. 

Of  producers  and  organizers,  on  the  other  hand,  the  world 
has  always  had  too  few.  This  fact  is  thrust  upon  us  a  dozen 
times  a  day.  We  owe  it,  therefore,  to  our  young  people  to 
give  them  at  least  a  try  at  some  occupations  that  are  genu- 
inely productive.  Afterwards  the  successful  working  out  of 
some  real  sort  of  breadwinning  is  easy.  Described  in  the 
language  of  the  seedsmen :  Seeds  for  this  variety  must  be 
sown  very  early,  in  order  that  the  roots  may  strike  deep. 
Later  the  plants  require  little  or  no  care.  These  plants  when 
full  grown  are  hardy  ;  they  bear  wonderfully,  and,  though  not 
gaudy,  are  unsurpassed  in  beauty  and  in  flavor. 

When,  however,  young  people  have  raised  salable  fruit, 
flowers,  or  vegetables,  by  all  means  let  them  enlarge  their 
horizon  by  going  with  their  own  produce  to  market.  In  this 
way  they  can  study  supply  and  demand,  prices,  and  other 


tGAR'DENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

business  questions,  as  these  directly  affect  the  goods  they  want 
to  dispose  of.  They  will  see  the  wisdom  of  keeping  strict 
accounts,  a  practice  only  too  frequently  neglected  among 
farmers  as  a  class.  All  these  practical  issues,  moreover,  will 


A  YOUNG  PRODUCER 


materially  help  them  in  deciding  what  to  specialize  in.  This 
is  not  mere  theory.  These  ideas  are  now  being  worked  out 
in  many  places.  In  some  neighborhoods  children  actually 
have  their  regular  customers,  and  deliver  from  little  push- 
carts the  fresh-picked  flowers  or  vegetables  which  they 


INTRODUCTION  5 

themselves  have  grown.  In  thickly  settled  communities  cus- 
tomers sometimes  come  to  the  garden  to  buy. 

We  can  bring  no  more  convincing  proof  of  how  garden 
stuffs  may  be  raised  in  a  small  plot  for  neighborhood  sale 
than  has  been  given  in  a  certain  vacant  city  lot  in  upper 
New  York.  At  headquarters,  consisting  of  a  couple  of  tents, 
the  young  producers  kept  their  tools,  their  three-foot  library 
of  garden  books,  and  their  account  books.  Here  they  trans- 
acted business,  and  part  of  the  time  —  just  for  the  lark  of  it 
—  actually  camped  out.  Neighbors  came  over  daily  for  fresh 
vegetables.  "  Lettuce  six  cents,  instead  of  eight  at  the  store, 
and  right  out  of  the  garden,"  called  out  a  little  girl  in  answer 
to  a  visitor's  inquiry,  as  she  sped  homeward  with  an  armful. 

Carlyle,  as  we  have  seen,  begins  with  the  question  of  profit, 
but  he  does  not  end  there.  The  joy  of  production  does  not 
stop  with  the  satisfaction  derived  from  a  dime  or  a  boiled 
dinner.  Some  of  us  can  match  the  feelings  of  a  prominent 
New  York  business  man  who  tells  how  he  spent  all  his  odd 
moments,  during  a  whole  summer,  out  in  his  garden  raising 
squashes.  These  he  stored  in  his  roomy  attic.  Thanksgiving 
approached.  We  went  with  him  to  look  them  over.  He 
stroked  the  shining  surface  of  a  special  beauty  and  confided 
to  us  that  he  simply  hated  to  have  it  eaten. 

Even  those  young  barbarians,  boys  in  their  early  teens, 
show  unexpected  streaks  of  sentiment.  This  surprised  the 
teacher  of  what  was  probably  the  first  school-gardening 
experiment  carried  on  in  the  rush  of  a  big  eastern  city.  Here 
on  an  exposed  corner  lot  forty  boys  of  the  hobbledehoy  age, 
for  the  most  part  tenement  born  and  bred,  staked  out  their 
garden.  The  rougher  the  work  the  better  it  pleased  them. 
For,  like  all  young  creatures,  they  loved  to  push  and  pull 
and  stretch.  The  mere  exercise  they  enjoyed  to  the  utmost. 
Perhaps  the  reason  was  that  in  spite  of  promises  they  did 


6  >  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

not  really  believe  that  lessons  could  produce  eatables.  It 
seemed  to  them,  no  doubt,  as  it  did  to  some  of  the  teachers 
across  the  way,  not  exactly  suitable  that  school  should  stoop 
to  bother  with  vegetables. 

A  month  flew  by.  The  red-letter  day  arrived,  and  the  early 
radishes  were  big  enough  to  pull  up.  How  superb  those  rad- 
ishes looked  !  The  topknot  of  green  set  off  the  most  brilliant 
of  surfaces,  which,  by  the  way,  had  been  polished  to  the  last 
degree  by  the  skillful  action  of  a  coat  sleeve.  "And  then," 
you  ask,  "  did  the  hungry  urchins  fall  to  and  eat  them  up  ?" 
Far  from  it ;  the  garden  brigade  marched  home  that  day, 
stiff  as  drum  majors,  each  man  of  them  decorated  with  a 
radish  in  his  buttonhole. 

In  the  seasons  that  followed,  hundreds  of  radishes  and  other 
"garden  sass"  in  great  variety  was  harvested  from  school  and 
home  gardens  by  scores  of  boys  and  girls.  And  during  these 
years  many  unexpected  traits  of  character  cropped  out.  But 
this  particular  note  in  boy  nature,  —  sentiment  withstanding 
appetite,  —  struck  so  entirely  by  chance,  never  rang  out  more 
clearly  than  at  this  moment. 

With  incidents  of  this  sort  in  mind  it  seems  quite  pos- 
sible, through  gardens,  to  train  children  in  beauty  and  order. 
The  kind  of  order,  however,  that  children  are  most  likely  to 
appreciate  is  not  that  expressed  by  trim  beds  and  straight 
rows,  although  in  time  they  learn  to  care  for  neat  and  pre- 
cise effects. 

It  is  the  larger,  the  more  universal  evidences  of  order  that 
appeal  to  children  earliest.  Even  little  children  are  impressed 
by  the  orderly  march  of  the  seasons  and  by  the  glimpses  they 
get  of  the  laws  that  govern  living  things.  This  is  shown  by 
the  very  questions  which  they  ask,  in  all  simplicity,  of  us 
grown-ups.  And  how  we  hesitate  and  stammer  and  blunder 
at  the  ordeal  of  answering ;  it  looks  sometimes  as  though  we 


INTRODUCTION  7 

had  almost  forgotten  how  to  wonder.    Not  out  of  a  book  but 
out  of  a  garden  children  learn  that 

...  the  world  was  built  in  order, 
And  the  atoms  march  in  tune ; 
Rhyme  the  pipe,  and  Time  the  warder, 
The  sun  obeys  them  and  the  moon. 

It  is  a  fact  that  children  respond  enthusiastically  to  those 
mysterious  forces  which  surround  them,  and  which  they  must 
gradually  learn  in  a  measure  to  control.  It  is  next  to  im- 
possible for  a  child  to  work  a  whole  summer  in  his  garden 
without  unconsciously  tuning  himself  to  certain  universal  laws. 
While  he  is  grubbing  in  the  earth,  stirring  the  soil  untir- 
ingly so  as  to  let  in  the  moisture  and  the  air,  nature's  secrets 
are  sinking  deep  into  his  heart.  And  there  they  abide,  living 
springs,  ready  to  bubble  up  and  to  sweeten  and  purify  his 
whole  life. 

New  wonders  are  waiting  for  him  each  morning  :  to-day  he 
is  excited  over  the  upspringing  of  his  first  onion  seedling ; 
to-morrow  he  proudly  views  a  patch  of  corn  ;  soon  his  own 
plants  are  towering  above  his  head.  He  sees  how  gracefully 
they  can  bend  before  the  wind  just  because  they  are  so  stoutly 
buttressed  with  special  roots  against  sudden  storms.  He  sees 
how  each  stalk  by  its  presence  helps  all  the  others  to  stand 
erect.  He  sees  how  each  organ  of  each  single  plant  has  gradu- 
ally adapted  itself  with  marvelous  nicety  to  serve  the  whole 
organism.  He  finds  all  sorts  of  curious  things  to  wonder  about. 
He  wonders  at  the  clever  packing  away,  within  a  seed,  of  ra- 
tions enough  to  start  a  plantlet  on  its  life  march,  and  thus  he 
gets  an  idea  of  the  provision  made  for  all  the  new  babies  of 
the  world.  He  wonders  how  the  soil  can  make  over  every  atom 
that  is  unsavory  or  unclean,  an  apple  core  or  a  bruised  butter- 
fly, to  the  purposes  of  order  and  beauty.  Surely  one  of  the 
finest  uses  of  a  garden  is  to  reveal  Mother  Earth  to  children. 


8  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

Fathers  and  mothers  are  the  ones  who  appreciate  what 
gardens  do  for  children.  They  deplore  the  flabby,  dependent 
attitude  of  young  folks  toward  tasks,  whether  these  have 
been  set  at  home  or  at  school.  To  be  sure,  they  do  not  ex- 
press this  in  educational  "  lingo,"  but  they  say,  "  Our  chil- 
dren have  no  gumption,"  or,  "They  are  so  indifferent  and 
blase"  Parents  grumble  at  the  schools,  —  who  could  help  it  ? 
But  they  finally  acknowledge  that  school  is  not  wholly  to 
blame,  and  that  really  the  general  aimlessness  of  boys  and 
girls  is  one  of  the  inevitable  evils  of  town  life.  Men  and 
women  of  country  stock  themselves,  perhaps,  remembering 
the  zest  of  their  own  childhood,  with  its  wholesome  duties 
and  simple  pleasures,  are  perplexed  over  the  folly  of  chain- 
ing up  a  child  on  the  one  hand  or  letting  him  loose  in  the 
city  streets  on  the  other.  They  try  to  remedy  the  difficulty 
in  various  ways.  The  father  of  a  handful  of  growing  boys, 
when  this  problem  forced  itself  upon  him,  deliberately  trans- 
ferred his  business  from  the  city  to  a  country  town  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, where  he  bought  a  small  farm  and  raised  - 
chiefly  his  family.  He  knew  he  must  pay  in  a  multitude  of 
ways  for  this  luxury;  but  he  has  got  in  return  vigorous  lads, 
in  whom  there  has  developed  conspicuously  the  rare  stuff 
called  leadership.  Again,  a  man  occupying  an  important 
public  office  tells  us  that  the  year  before  his  family  moved 
into  the  country  the  doctor's  bills  amounted  to  five  hundred 
dollars.  In  the  five  years  since,  he  has  paid,  all  told,  just 
six  dollars. 

Parents  who  cannot  move  out  of  the  city  have  tried  to  com- 
promise by  sending  their  children  to  some  out-of-town  day 
school  or,  at  stated  intervals,  to  some  teacher  of  gardening  in 
the  suburbs.  A  successful  instructor1  has  taught  a  number 
of  such  pupils.  One  mother  has  accompanied  her  little 

1  In  Watertown,  Massachusetts. 


10  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

daugfifer  of  nine  to  an  out-of-town  garden  every  Saturday 
morning  foi  two  seasons.  They  have  been  learning  together 
how  to  garden. 

Appreciation  of  country  life  for  children  is,  however,  not 
confined  to  the  ranks  of  the  well-to-do.  Those  who  are  tied 
to  a  job  through  an  eight-  or  nine-hour  working  day  are  also 
willing  to  make  sacrifices  for  the  sake  of  this  idea.  The  wider 
one's  experience  the  firmer  one's  belief  that  gardens  have  no 
stronger  advocates  than  the  plain  people. 

An  incident  is  worth  telling  here.  In  the  throng  at  a 
recent  horticultural  show  of  children's  gardens  two  visitors 
attracted  the  writer's  attention,  —  Veronica  (a  small  colored 
girl,  aged  twelve)  and  her  mother.  Evidently  they  had  come 
for  a  purpose.  They  inspected  the  prize  tables,  lingering  a 
long  time  at  each.  Every  now*  and  then  Veronica  would  write 
in  her  scrap  of  a  notebook.  An  acquaintance  was  soon  struck  up. 

It  appeared  that  the  exhibit  was  to  be  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  school  composition,  the  children  having  been  permitted 
to  choose  their  own  theme.  But  why  this  particular  one  ? 
Thereupon  hung  a  story.  They  lived  in  a  South  End  tene- 
ment ;  the  mother  did  cleaning.  Her  regular  places  were 
mostly  offices  in  buildings  down  town,  but  on  Saturdays  she 
scrubbed  for  a  private  family  ten  miles  out.  This  was  because 
she  could  take  Veronica  along,  who  was  allowed  to  work  in 
the  garden  with  the  children  pf  the  family.  The  mother  after 
some  coaxing  explained  why  she  considered  the  triple  sacri- 
fice of  time,  strength,  and  money  worth  making,  expressing  in 
the  vernacular  of  a  working  woman  the  fervor  of  a  Pestalozzi. 

So  far  we  have  spoken  of  the  value  of  gardens  to  individual 
children  with  little  reference  to  the  stimulus  of  companion- 
ship. But  in  stopping  here  we  should  lose  sight  of  a  tre- 
mendous force,  —  the  drawing  of  kindred  natures  together 
for  the  better  accomplishment  of  some  distinct  end. 


INTRODUCTION  1 1 

The  social  life  of  a  whole  family  may  easily  center  around 
the  garden.  A  young  girl  living  in  one  of  the  few  remaining 
dwelling  houses  now  standing  in  the  business  section  of  a 
city  tells  a  charming  story  of  their  home  garden.  It  slipped 
out  quite  casually  one  day  in  the  botany  class,  through  an 
endeavor  to  persuade  her  classmates  to  plant  flowers  on 
their  roofs.  To  show  how  well  this  would  work,  she  drew  a 
little  picture  of  their  own  family  life. 

There  were  nine  children.  The  father  had  always  gone 
daft  over  his  flower  garden,  and  the  children  were  worthy 
scions  ;  but  bit  by  bit  the  land  around  them  was  sliced  away 
and  nearly  all  the  sun  was  shut  out  by  high  buildings.  At 
last  they  agreed  to  transfer  their  garden  to  the  shed  roof.  So 
the  neighborhood  was  scoured  for  boxes  six  feet  or  more 
in  length.  Then  took  place  the  exciting  ceremony  of  hoisting 
these  boxes  up  onto  the  roof.  The  best  arrangement  for  them 
had  already  been  discussed.  In  readiness  for  planting  they 
had  contrived  to  raise  seedlings  and  slips  by  putting  them 
under  the  skylight  —  the  only  place  where  the  sun  could 
stream  in.  These  boxes  of  plantlets  the  children  would  run 
upstairs  several  times  a  day  to  adjust  so  that  the  rays  should 
always  strike  just  right.  It  was  plain  to  see  that,  besides  the. 
joy  of  the  work  itself,  this  garden,  like  many  another,  gave 
opportunity  for  the  interplay  between  young  minds  and  old, 
and  on  more  or  less  equal  terms.  Such  opportunities,  if  we 
stop  to  think,  occur  too  seldom,  particularly  in  these  days 
when  interests,  and  especially  pleasures,  are  so  largely  strati- 
fied according  to  age.  It  is  self-evident  that  the  girl  in  this 
particular  botany  class,  who  owned  a  garden,  would  have  a 
much  more  solid  foundation  for  knowledge  than  the  rest, 
who  had  learned  their  facts  from  mere  detached  schoolroom 
specimens,  no  matter  how  carefully  these  might  have  been 
selected  for  them  by  a  teacher. 


12  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

Primarily,  of  course,  a  garden  is  beloved  for  its  own 
sake.  There  are  occasions,  however,  when  it  is  chosen  as 
a  background  against  which  to  group  other  plans.  That 
it  can  serve  in  a  sense  as  a  theater  for  human  play  only 
brings  out  a  new  value. 

A  real  little  drama  was  recently  watched  by  a  young  college 
woman  who  lives  in  the  Jewish  quarter  of  a  seaboard  city. 
One  June  day  two  lads  (neighbors,  but  almost  strangers  to 
her),  having  spied  some  young  children  gardening  with 
their  teacher  in  a  distant  part  of  the  park,  rang  her  door- 
bell and  asked  if  they  might  not  use  her  back  yard  for  a  gar- 
den. Neither  of  them,  it  appeared,  had  ever  had  a  garden ; 
but  they  wanted,  so  they  said,  to  raise  potatoes.  At  last  she 
consented,  and  operations  began. 

The  spot,  as  she  described  it,  was  hardly  one  to  tempt  a 
gardener.  The  yard  was  brick-paved,  and  the  sunshine,  oh, 
so  scanty !  With  the  assistance,  however,  of  a  number  of 
willing-handed  friends,  who  at  the  right  moment  appeared  as 
by  magic  on  the  scene,  they  began  filling  it  layer  upon  layer 
with  earth,  which  they  brought  mysteriously  in  strawberry 
boxes  and  paper  bags.  Where  this  came  from  nobody  in- 
quired, until  one  day  a  being  in  policeman's  buttons  rang 
the  doorbell  and  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  her  young 
friends  had  been  scraping  soil  from  around  the  shade  trees 
in  the  Mall.  The  affair,  he  seemed  to  think,  had  gone  quite 
far  enough ;  and  yet,  with  characteristic  softening  of  mood, 
he  gave  her  to  understand  that  in  one  special  corner  there 
was  an  earth  heap  which  the  boys  might  draw  upon  so  long  as 
they  dug  at  certain  hours  when  duty  would  not  compel  him 
to  interfere.  So,  suggestive  of  ants  rather  than  lads,  they 
continued  carrying  the  earth  until  it  was  spread  evenly  over 
the  plot,  at  least  a  foot  in  depth.  Next  they  brought  potatoes 
from  their  home  kitchens,  cut  them  into  quarters,  and  planted 


INTRODUCTION  13 

them  quite  —  if  you  please  —  according  to  orthodox  rules. 
Where  they  had  learned  this  still  remains  a  mystery. 

All  through  the  long  summer's  heat  this  little  band  raked 
and  watered  and  weeded,  in  fact  fairly  brooded  over  the  rows 
of  potato  plants.  These  in  time  actually  looked  quite  flour- 
ishing, and  were  extravagantly  admired  by  many  child  visitors. 
But,  sad  to  say,  the  season  ended  before  they  had  produced 
a  single  potato  large  enough  to  cook. 

Here  the  tale  might  be  expected  to  end.  But  no,  the  boys 
were  not  vanquished  by  what  an  ordinary  critic  would  have 
called  a  wasted  summer.  The  following  spring  found  them 
once  more  at  their  neighbor's  door,  with  even  more  earnest 
pleadings,  if  possible,  than  before.  In  the  meantime,  how- 
ever, fresh  difficulties  had  arisen  in  the  shape  of  a  new  land- 
lord who  did  not  want  to  bother  about  boys.  And  so  the  lads 
went  their  ways.  Whatever  the  incident  had  meant  to  them, 
it  was  not  without  its  value  to  her,  and  she  would  not  dis- 
miss it  without  inquiring  into  it  carefully.  The  movement, 
it  seems,  had  owed  its  impulse  and  its  execution  chiefly  to 
one  boy,  a  born  organizer.  Gardening  had  somehow  struck 
his  fancy  ;  he  saw  in  it  the  very  magnet  with  which  to  attract 
his  "  gang."  Through  his  gift  of  leadership  this  arduous 
work  had  prospered,  and  of  course  the  reason  that  it  did  not 
strike  the  children  as  a  failure  was  that  potatoes  was  only 
the  opportunity  for  association,  not  the  underlying  purpose. 

No  one  who  understood  children  could  help  sympathizing 
with  the  latent  possibilities  of  such  a  situation.  Tempting 
fields  for  mischief  lay  all  about  them  —  beckoned  to  them, 
in  fact,  from  every  alleyway.  Yet  they  had  chosen  this  area, 
which,  though  tiny,  in  its  possibilities  was  vast.  Far  more 
remarkable  than  potatoes,  there  had  flourished  here  a  faith 
in  cause  and  comrades  which,  in  no  mere  figurative  sense, 
could  remove  mountains.  Faith  like  this  forms  the  basis  of 


14  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

all  cooperative  work.  What  this  particular  situation  needed, 
and  needed  sorely  of  course,  was  a  wise  word  of  advice  slipped 
in  by  the  right  grown  person  at  just  the  right  moment  to 
reenforce  the  children's  own  effort.  If  only  this  had  been 
forthcoming,  the  tale  might  well  deserve  to  go  on  record  as 
a  splendid  example  of  how  a  garden  may  educate  children 
through  utilizing  spontaneous  desires,  and,  incidentally,  how 
it  may  give  trend  to  their  life  interests. 

But  imperfect  as  this  experiment  was,  in  so  far  as  these 
youngsters  had  united  in  working  out  plans  of  their  own  they 
were  getting  positive  benefit ;  they  were,  besides,  reading  the 
romance  of  growing  things,  and  they  were  being  disciplined 
in  self-mastery  and  initiative,  the  possession  of  which  deter- 
mines whether  a  person  is  effective  in  life  or  not. 

These  glimpses  of  children's  doings  bring  into  clearer  view 
many  activities  that  are  going  on  all  around  us  every  day. 
If  the  three  most  significant  of  these  activities  were  to  be 
pointed  out,  one  would  be  the  training  of  producers,  another 
the  awakening  of  interest  in  nature's  laws,  and  the  third  - 
not  the  least  in  importance  —  the  joyous  companionship 
shown  in  planning  and  in  working  out  plans.  Each  of  these 
activities  has  gone  on,  it  must  be  remembered,  quite  outside 
the  realm  of  a  formal  school  or  a  certificated  teacher.  We 
become  possessed  by  the  thought  of  what  a  garden  might 
accomplish  in  a  school  dealing  frankly  with  living  issues 
and  guided  by  teachers  willing  to  lend  themselves  to  its 
rare  possibilities. 


CHAPTER  I 
WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE 

For  Weakness  in  freedom  grows  stronger  than  Strength  with  a  chain. 

SIDNEY  LANIER 

A  garden  carried  on  in  a  home  where  desires  and  delights 
are  companions,  not  foes,  seems  the  most  natural  thing  in  the 
world.  This  is  because  the  knowledge  that  springs  from  the 
joy  of  such  gardening  is  in  its  very  essence  real.  But  it  re- 
quires a  good  stretch  of  the  imagination  to  set  this  cherished 
pursuit  fittingly  in  a  sharply  defined  course  of  study.  To  tell 
the  truth,  it  has  never  been  taken  quite  seriously;  and  while 
excellent  starts  have  been  made  and  many  have  entered  for 
the  race,  nobody  has  as  yet  reached  the  goal.  This  goal  in 
children's  gardening  is  the  secret  of  making  it  yield  to  a 
school  program  its  entire  and  unique  contribution. 

Nobody  will,  of  course,  deny  that  the  garden  has  been 
cordially  welcomed  as  a  pleasant  accompaniment  to  various 
educational  projects.  It  offers,  for  instance,  a  kind  of  supple- 
mentary manual  training,  besides  a  large  and  varied  supply  of 
material  for  nature  study.  It  is  also,  as  we  know,  a  powerful 
magnet  to  attract  children  from  the  street.  Notwithstanding 
these  recommendations,  it  has  not,  so  far,  on  its  own  account 
rendered  a  sufficiently  distinct  service  to  save  it  from  the 
odium  of  being  classed  with  those  last  straws  which  a  patient 
curriculum  is  obliged  to  bear.  The  simple  fact  that  the  sacred 
hours  of  schooltime  are  dealt  out  to  gardening  so  grudgingly, 
if  at  all,  shows  that  it  is  still  a  sort  of  annex  to  the  school 
instead  of  an  integral  part  of  it. 

15 


16  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

If,  however,  gardening  must  at  present  be  judged  on  its 
incidental  merits,  there  is  one  of  these,  as  yet  unmentioned, 
quite  worthy  of  leading  all  the  rest.  It  is  the  subtle,  sunny 
influence  of  gardening  which  has  mellowed  the  atmosphere 
of  many  a  schoolroom.  Garden  teachers  themselves  are  the 
first  to  realize  this.  "  Whatever  else,"  begged  one  director 
of  her  associates,  "  do  not  make  the  garden  into  a  school- 
room, but  make  the  schoolroom  more  like  a  garden."  Put- 
ting this  plea  into  words  would  hardly  seem  necessary ;  for  to 
carry  the  formal  and  repressive  customs  of  some  very  good 
schools  out  into  the  exhilarating  life  of  the  open  would  be  as 
impossible  as  to  carry  the  powdered  wigs  and  low  curtsies  of 
the  minuet  into  a  game  of  basket  ball.  A  whiff  of  the  spicy 
air  and  the  call  of  the  warm  Mother  Earth  are  in  themselves 
enough  to  snap  the  ties  of  formality  between  teacher  and 
children  ;  and  it  very  soon  happens  that  in  spite  of  itself, 
the  hand  of  the  disciplinarian  relaxes  its  rigid  grasp  and  gives 
rein  to  elasticity,  buoyancy,  and  good  comradeship.  In  an 
atmosphere  charged  with  these  life-giving  qualities  there 
is  developed,  out  in  the  garden,  an  easy  give-and-take  in 
opinion,  a  cordial  comparison  of  results,  and  a  respect  for 
the  efforts  of  others  and  for  their  possessions  such  as  never 
was  known  indoors. 

The  value  of  having  workmates  as  well  as  playmates  is 
something  that  very  early  appeals  to  children  ;  it  seems  to 
them  only  good  sense  to  make  common  cause  with  others. 
In  gardening  they  must  organize,  at  any  rate,  for  mutual  de- 
fense against  foes,  whether  two-footed  or  four-footed.  This 
may  be  done  so  effectively  that  in  a  school  garden  there  is 
seldom  any  trouble  from  intruders.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there 
are  no  more  efficient  guardians  of  property  anywhere  to 
be  found  than  the  children  themselves.  To  put  it  in  bar- 
baric terms,  they  have  learned  once  for  all  through  these 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE     17 

experiences  that  ' '  the  strength  of  the  Pack  is  the  Wolf,  and 
the  strength  of  the  Wolf  is  the  Pack."  This  fierce  phrase 
contains  the  germ  of  mutual  aid  ;  and  mutual  aid  can  by  the 
right  culture  be  nurtured  into  cooperation  ;  and  cooperation 
is  to-day  the  great  life  force  of  society. 

Now,  admitting  that  all  these  dynamic  currents  are  being 
set  free  in  a  school  garden  for  the  purposes  of  education,  the 
question  is  how  they  may  be  most  effectively  employed  ;  and 
this  can  hardly  be  profitably  discussed  until  the  use  of  the 
term  "  school  garden  "  has  been  agreed  upon.  By  some  it  has 
been  interpreted  thus  :  A  school  garden  worth  the  name  is  not 
a  teacher's  garden,  or  a  philanthropist's  garden,  but  a  garden 
worked  out  in  thought  and  act  by  happy,  purposeful  children. 
"  Purposeful,"  in  the  mind  of  the  educator,  would  naturally 
mean  that  the  children,  as  well  as  doing  the  work,  are  carry- 
ing out  plans  of  their  own  devising.  Is  this  too  much  to  ask 
in  behalf  of  an  education  garden,  if  that  is  what  it  really  is 
to  be  ?  Hardly,  if  we  are  considering  the  garden  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  child  ;  but  considering  it,  for  a  moment, 
from  the  angle  of  the  teacher,  the  emphasis  somehow  changes. 
That  there  is  a  difference  can  easily  be  explained  by  the  fact 
that  to  a  teacher  the  garden  plot,  in  and  for  itself,  is  often 
the  matter  of  deepest  concern.  And,  as  it  happens,  more 
seems  to  depend  upon  the  correctness  of  the  early  steps  in 
conventional  gardening  than  in  any  other  study.  Is  a  teacher 
so  dull  as  not  to  foresee  that,  after  the  season  is  well  under 
way,  a  mistake  may  be  patched  up,  to  be  sure,  but  never 
really  rectified  ?  Even  before  midsummer  a  garden  has  be- 
come a  sort  of  exercise  book  where  each  blot  and  crooked 
letter  stands  magnified,  —  made  so  large,  in  fact,  that  literally 
he  who  runs  may  read.  For  from  the  first  spade-thrust  a 
garden  lives  in  the  public  eye.  The  genial  policeman,  the 
bank  president,  the  butcher's  boy,  all  pay  a  school  garden  the 


1 8  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

compliment  of  dallying  awhile  at  the  fence.  Not  a  single 
one  who  passes  neglects  to  toss  over  a  bit  of  good-humored 
advice.  Then,  too,  the  searchlight  of  criticism,  directed  first 
upon  the  proportion  of  the  beds,  shifts  presently  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  vegetables  and  flowers,  and  brings  out  the  grotesque 
effect  of  a  few  lonely  cornstalks,  as  well  as  the  upspringing 
—  overnight,  one  could  swear  —  of  a  fine  lot  of  weeds.  No 
other  school  task,  it  would  seem,  could  ever  be  so  constantly 
on  parade.  Alive  to  all  the  cruel  possibilities  of  the  situation, 
acutely  supersensitive  to  it,  as  often  happens,  the  teacher  re- 
solves in  self-defense  that  from  the  grown-up  point  of  view 
there  shall  be  nothing  to  regret.  Clearly  the  way  completely 
to  safeguard  the  situation  is  to  keep  every  decision  firmly 
in  his  own  hands,  conscientiously  mapping  out  each  detail 
(doubtless  by  the  midnight  oil)  and  then  indicating  in  advance 
what  shall  be  planted,  and  when,  and  how,  and  where.  Then 
later  he  calls  in,  if  he  likes,  that  well-meaning  but  sadly  dis- 
turbing element,  the  children,  who,  do  their  worst,  cannot  now 
make  a  mess  of  it. 

And  yet  while  one  gate  is  being  so  conscientiously  guarded 
against  the  dangers  of  infant  folly,  a  more  dangerous  because 
more  subtle  enemy  complacently  enters  at  the  other  ;  for  this 
very  position  of  perfect  safety  is  threatened  by  its  own  pecu- 
liar enemy,  too  much  safety.  It  is  easy  enough  to  explain. 
In  proportion  as  they  are  being  denied  their  freedom,  the 
children  are  losing  the  precious  chance  of  learning  by  their 
blunders.  If  this,  by  some  educational  flash  light,  could  once 
be  revealed  to  the  teacher,  so  careful  about  many  things,  he 
would  be  the  very  first  to  see  his  mistake  and  to  realize 
that  such  a  garden  was  actually  in  its  plan  and  purpose  the 
teacher's,  and  only  by  courtesy  the  children's.  It  is  an  in- 
stance of  how  the  most  beautiful  pool  may  have  the  most 
dangerous  shallows. 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    19 

Teachers  are  not  the  only  ones  who,  in  this  particular,  mis- 
interpret the  garden  movement.  A  piece  of  work  recently 
done  by  a  certain  social  betterment  committee  in  a  small 
Massachusetts  town  may,  just  here,  add  its  own  word  to  the 
discussion.  It  appears  that  the  determination  of  these  public- 
spirited  people  to  carry  on  a  vacation  garden  had  unfortu- 
nately been  made  too  late  in  the  spring  to  connect  properly 
with  the  public  school  of  the  vicinity,  or  to  enable  the  leaders 
to  make  friends  with  the  children.  They,  however,  did  their 
best.  The  events  of  that  summer  as  they  are  described  pass 
before  us  with  the  vividness  of  moving  pictures.  The  open- 
ing day  arrived,  and  with  it  tumbled  in  a  troop  of  boys  and 
girls  bent  on  getting,  in  some  form  or  other,  an  adequate 
return  for  their  curiosity.  The  ample  field,  generously  loaned 
for  this  project,  lay  before  them  ;  it  had  already  been  plowed 
and  raked,  and  tidily  divided  off  into  sections.  Next  the  ladies 
and  gentlemen  of  the  committee  distributed  the  seeds,  and, 
amid  some  confusion,  gave  excellent  instruction  upon  the 
rules  for  planting.  The  exact  places  where  the  seeds  were  to 
go  had  already  been  decided,  and  these  were  explained  by 
means  of  a  carefully  prepared  map. 

At  the  season's  end  a  devoted  member  of  this  committee, 
very  expert  in  horticulture  but  very  inexpert  in  dealing  with 
children,  in  almost  these  very  words  described  the  outcome 
of  their  summer  of  good  works  :  . 

"  Yes,  the  gardens  themselves  turned  out  well  enough.  We 
directors,  of  course,  had  to  do  a  good  deal  of  drudgery,  such 
as  weeding,  ourselves.  By  watering  thoroughly  in  the  eve- 
nings my  sister  and  I  managed  pretty  well  to  keep  things 
from  drying  up.  But  the  children,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  were  dis- 
orderly and  ungrateful.  I  can't  tell  you  what  we  went  through. 
Excepting  a  few  dear  little  girls  who  came  regularly,  not  one 
of  them  seemed  a  bit  interested.  I  never  saw  lazier  boys. 


2O  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

The  most  discouraging  part  was  that  after  the  vegetables  were 
beginning  to  ripen,  these  same  boys,  so  we  think,  would 
trample  about  after  dark  and  pick  things.  Of  course  that 
was  too  demoralizing.  We  took  turns  at  teaching  them.  This 
first  year  we  could  not  afford  to  hire  any  one.  Perhaps  a  regu- 
lar teacher  could  have  made  them  behave." 

That  this  little  tale  was  set  in  a  minor  key  is  probably  due 
to  various  causes  rather  than  to  any  single  one.  But  certainly 
these  excellent  townspeople,  like  a  good  many  of  us  when 
we  set  out  to  work  for  others  without  particularly  consulting 
them,  missed  the  point.  Seemingly  it  had  not  crossed  their 
minds  that  the  only  logical  excuse  for  a  vacation  garden  or 
any  other  sort  of  children's  garden  might  be  the  development 
of  the  children,  and  that  development  comes  through  real 
activity  in  contrast  to  mere  manual  work  or  drudgery. 

All  this  gives  wide  sweep  for  discussion.  But  how  it  is 
possible  to  conduct  gardening  at  all  in  a  school  of  several  hun- 
dred children  may  well  be  considered  now.  For  certainly  not 
all  grammar  schools,  even  those  in  the  outlying  districts  of 
towns,  are  so  favorably  situated  as  to  allow  garden  space  for 
every  one  of  its  grades.  Yet  in  the  face  of  serious  obstacles 
some  schools  have  been  able  to  accomplish  this,  their  success 
being  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  project  has  won  the 
moral  support  of  the  community. 

In  this  respect  one  of  the  most  interesting  schools  in  the 
country  1  some  years  ago  set  apart  garden  space  for  all  its 
grades.  Each  child,  from  the  kindergarten  up,  tended  a  plot 
of  his  own,  progressing  in  gardening  very  much  as  in  his 
other  studies.  Moreover,  a  large  proportion  of  the  lessons 
indoors  were  based  upon  the  lessons  outside.  All  the  school 
years  of  such  a  child,  therefore,  are  vibrant  with  interest  in  the 
fields.  Think  how  such  an  interest  would  permeate  his  life. 

1  Whittier  School,  Hampton,  Virginia. 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    21 


In  some  schools  only  one  class  each  year  is  given  the  privi- 
lege of  gardening ;  and  in  these  cases  it  is  generally  the 
middle  or  high  grades  in  a  grammar  school  that  are  chosen. 
Yet  the  other  classes  often  participate,  in  a  measure,  though 
they  have  no  plot  to  work  in.  Here  the  younger  children 
watch  every  event  that  affects  the  garden's  prosperity,  and 
regard  it  with  quite  a  tremendous  sense  of  its  importance,  as 
well  as  the  importance 
of  the  superior  beings 
at  work  there,  whom 
they  admire  far  more 
than  they  do  their  teach- 
ers. They  hang  over 
the  fence,  casting  wist- 
ful glances  and  making 
sage  comments.  By  the 
talk  to  and  fro  it  is  plain 
that  they  are  looking  for- 
ward with  ill-concealed 
impatience  to  the  year 
after  next,  it  may  be, 
when,  by  the  rights  of 
succession,  this  honor  will  fall  to  them.  Once  in  a  while  — 
happy  mortals  —  they  may  be  invited  in  to  help  check  a  raid 
of  potato  beetles  or  to  push  a  wheelbarrow. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  scholars  who  have  passed  into 
higher  classes  or  out  of  the  school  altogether  show  in  the 
schemes  an  elder-brother  interest,  strongly  tinctured,  it  is  true, 
with  chaff  and  advice.  But  this  does  not  seem  to  give  offense, 
particularly  if  it  is  accompanied,  as  is  the  rule,  by  a  willing 
hand  at  some  critical  moment.  Many  children  prove  the 
worth  of  their  school  course  by  undertaking  more  specialized 
or  more  ambitious  work  in  their  own  back  yards,  and  ,by 


WATCHING    BROTHER    WORK 


22  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

bringing  offerings  of  fruit  and  flowers  for  the  whole  school's 
admiration  and  enjoyment.  The  bonds  of  brotherhood  in  a 
school  are  further  tightened  by  the  lively  exchange  in  sugges- 
tions and  requests  which  goes  on  between  those  who  belong  to 
the  garden  class  and  the  rest.  The  head  class  in  commercial 
geography,  for  instance,  sends  a  message  that  in  a  certain 
month  it  will  need  for  its  lessons  samples  of  the  different 
grains,  or  perhaps  of  cotton  or  tobacco,  which  it  begs  the 
gardeners  to  plant  for  their  use. 

It  may  seem  that  quite  too  much  is  being  said  about  the 
activity  of  the  children,  and  too  little  about  the  duties  of  the 
teacher.  The  teacher's  part  is  indeed  important,  but  it  reminds 
one  a  little  of  the  share  sometimes  taken  by  a  "  grown-up  "  in 
a  chorus  of  children's  voices.  He  may  not  audibly  join  in  the 
song  at  all,  until  some  harmony  needs  a  deeper,  richer  note, 
quite  beyond  the  range  of  a  child,  to  fill  out  the  chord.  When 
this  has  been  added,  the  music,  by  its  very  completeness,  sat- 
isfies and  thrills  them  all.  And  so  it  happens  that  oftentimes 
the  part  of  the  teacher  is  as  inconspicuous  as  it  is  indispen- 
sable. A  teacher  who  realizes  this  knows  that  the  more  nearly 
the  school  approaches,  functionally,  to  the  living  organism, 
made  up  of  organs,  tissues,  and  cells,  —  each  for  all  and  all 
for  each,  —  the  greater  pity  it  is  for  him  to  work  it  like  a 
mechanical  toy.  The  more  wholesomely  active  all  the  mem- 
bers are,  the  sounder,  of  course,  the  organism.  And  so 
teachers  are  coming  to  believe  that  to  deprive  youngsters 
of  the  discipline  of  at  least  'helping  to  map  out  a  project  is 
to  do  them  a  positive  wrong. 

"Other  teachers  go  still  farther.  They  believe  in  passing  over 
to  the  children,  come  what  may,  the  responsibility  of  working 
out  the  whole  garden  scheme.  No  situation,  they  urge,  will 
present  itself  to  a  self-organized  team  of  active,  wide-awake 
girls  and  boys,  occupied  with  problems  of  their  own,  that 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    23 

cannot  be  splendidly  met  and  mastered  by  them.  They  have 
satisfied  themselves  that  the  very  puzzles  that  elude  the  com- 
prehension of  the  grown-up,  and  vex  his  soul,  if  honestly  put 
to  the  children  are  courageously  attacked  and  by  some  magic 
skill  solved  by  them.  To  borrow  a  bit  of  philosophy,  Children 
rush  in  and  win  where  grown-ups  fear  to  tread. 

There  is  not  the  least  doubt  that  a  surprise  is  in  store  for 
those  grown-ups  who  will  in  all  sincerity  try  the  experiment 
of  consulting  a  band  of  children  upon  some  matter  that  deeply 
concerns  them.  Indeed,  why  not  consult  them  if  we  are  train- 
ing them  for  democracy  ?  An  answer  to  those  who  doubted  the 
success  of  democracy  was  given  awhile  ago  by  Jane  Addams. 
It  was  simply  this,  that  the  cure  for  the  evils  of  democracy  was 
more  democracy.  Why  not  try,  then,  as  a  cure  for  incon- 
sequence and  irresponsibility  on  the  part  of  young  people, 
about  which  there  is  so  much  complaint,  more  and  more 
responsibility  ? 

Of  course  the  laying  of  responsibility  upon  children  must 
not  be  undertaken  lightly.  To  the  teacher  and  the  parent, 
how  much  and  what  responsibility  it  is  best  to  give  over  seems 
destined  to  remain  an  unknown  quantity.  Perhaps  a  child's 
hunger  for  responsibility  is  like  the  hunger  of  a  four-footed 
creature  for  food,  —  a  reasonably  safe  indication  of  the  de- 
mands of  his  system.  If  so,  there  needs  to  be  deliberately 
offered  him  a  chance  to  take,  quite  voluntarily,  some  respon- 
sibility. Then,  by  an  open-eyed  and  open-minded  teacher, 
the  experiment  can  be  watched.  No  studies  of  children  are 
more  stimulating  for  the  teacher  than  these  ;  and  no  sur- 
roundings, as  we  have  seen,  are  likely  to  be  more  favorable 
than  a  garden. 

Society  is  never  as  simple  as  it  looks,  either  in  or  out  of 
school.  A  number  of  distinct  types  of  child  personality  reveal 
themselves  to  a  master  who  "  lets  go  "  in  this  way,  for  a  little, 


24  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

and  takes  the  risk  of  offering  to  his  class  the  responsibility  of 
sketching  out  beforehand,  as  well  as  actually  handling,  a  year 
of  gardening.  These  child  types  will  vary  according  to  natural 
tastes,  temperament,  and  power  of  initiative.  Not  all  young 
people,  for  example,  will  take  hold  of  the  gardening  problem 
with  anything  like  the  same  ability  or  enthusiasm.  There  will 
surely  be  a  few  who  in  their  heart  of  hearts,  though  they  may 
not  seemingly  hold  back,  are  indifferent  or  actually  bored.  It 
is  for  a  grown  person  to  anticipate  and  deal  with  this  attitude 
without  any  regrets  or  coaxings.  A  good  way  is  to  substitute 
without  discussion  some  school  work,  of  a  more  orthodox 
stamp,  peculiarly  suited  to  the  needs  of  those  who  prefer 
reading  or  some  similar  task  indoors.  Freedom  to  take  gar- 
dening or  to  leave  it  will,  more  than  anything  else,  sharply  test 
the  genuineness  of  the  situation,  and  prove  conclusively  that 
the  occupation  of  those  out  in  the  field  is  truly  voluntary.  As 
experience  shows,  it  almost  inevitably  happens  that  these  in- 
different ones  will  be  drawn  into  the  project  by  some  real 
and  happy  interest  which  had  to  be  awakened  gradually.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  class  will  probably,  from  the  first  mo- 
ment, justify  the  optimism  of  a  teacher  by  having  a  more  or 
less  definite  aim,  together  with  no  small  amount  of  efficiency 
and  poise.  Conspicuous  among  such  children  will  be  those 
who  in  just  the  right  kind  of  home  life  have  been  intrusted 
with  important  errands,  and  have  looked  after  the  comfort 
and  safety  of  younger  brothers  and  sisters.  These  young 
folks  may  not  be  the  ones  who  never  trip  in  behavior  or  in 
a  spelling  test,  but  they  prove  themselves,  nevertheless,  to  be 
miles  ahead  of  any  such  little  prigs  in  the  ability  to  deal  with 
real  issues.  These  children  are  quick  to  suggest  courses  of 
action  and  to  foresee  those  disasters  which  are  ever  descend- 
ing out  of  a  clear  sky  upon  the  inexperienced  and  improvident. 
They  grasp  with  all  speed  the  idea  of  adjusting  themselves 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    25 

to  new  and  unexpected  conditions.  These  are  the  earliest 
signs  of  leadership. 

By  what  has  already  been  said,  the  art  of  the  teacher  is 
seen  to  be  distinctly  constructive.  Just  here  he  will  study  to 
give  as  naturally  as  possible,  not  merely  to  a  select  few  but  to 
each  young  human  being,  such  opportunities  as  are  needed  to 
develop  him  out  of  a  state  of  self-centered  dependence  into  one 
of  freedom  and  fullest  usefulness.  To  see  that  this  happens 
requires  no  small  amount  of  insight  and  discretion.  Some 
pupils  will  need  to  be  shaken  out  of  their  self-importance.  A 
"bossy"  child,  for  instance,  is  usually  disciplined  by  his  co- 
workers.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  will  be  found  lacking  in 
initiative  and  limp  except  while  spurred  by  the  persistent 
vigilance  of  an  older  person  and  stimulated  by  the  hope  of 
conventional  reward. 

Garden  work  will,  perhaps,  in  this  way  offer  the  golden 
moment  in  which  to  break  the  fetters  of  an  artificial  school 
life,  for  a  true  education  garden  can  be  managed  so  that  the 
child  faces  the  conditions  of  the  real  world.  A  stern,  uncom- 
promising world  to  wrestle  with  it  is  indeed,  but  by  good  luck 
he  may  face  it  with  the  supreme  advantage  of  a  clear-sighted, 
yes,  and  devoted,  friend  by  his  side  —  the  teacher  —  and 
with  an  organized  brotherhood  of  fellow  workers,  who  will 
make  his  success  or  his  failure  theirs. 

Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  a  few  of  the  special  uses  in 
life  to  which  the  power  of  initiative  can  be  put,  and  how  it 
can  be  further  exercised  in  a  garden.  One  thing  is  plain  :  if 
any  of  us  could  rely  upon  traveling  "  personally  conducted  " 
through  life,  the  power  to  blaze  new  trails  would  be  unneces- 
sary. But  each  day's  problem  comes  to  every  individual  man 
afresh,  however  humdrum  or  circumscribed  his  life.  Some- 
times it  is  the  old  one  with  new  variations,  and  sometimes 
it  is  a  brand-new  one.  Is  there  any  recipe  for  attacking  a 


26  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

brand-new  problem  ?  And  can  gardening  give  us  practice  that 
will  make  us  more  successful  in  doing  it  ?  Granted  that  it 
can,  let  us  first  ask,  What  is  the  method  of  approach  ?  A  sort 
of  preliminary  skirmishing  discloses,  in  any  new  undertak- 
ing, so  much  that  we  never  dreamed  of  at  the  beginning, 
—  and  how  little  any  one  person  really  knows,  after  all !  The 
horizon  widens  every  minute,  delightfully  but  oh  !  so  incon- 
veniently. We  find  ourselves  launched  upon  a  pond  that 
has  suddenly  widened  out  into  a  sea.  The  great  pulsating 
world  of  action  gives  everywhere  the  same  answer  to  our 
question  :  Investigate  ;  study  first  what  others  have  success- 
fully done,  and  try  to  find  out  what  direction  improvements 
are  taking.  Any  great  project  of  scientific  or  commercial 
importance,  for  instance,  illustrates  this  on  a  huge  scale. 
Inquiry  into  enterprises  of  this  sort  shows  that  men  are  dis- 
patched east  and  west  to  get  in  touch  with  the  very  latest 
aspects  of  the  question.  Dashing  ahead  without  a  notion  of 
what  older  countries  have  already  adopted,  or  perhaps  have 
tried  and  long  ago  discarded,  is  a  trait  that  in  the  past,  per- 
haps not  altogether  unfairly,  has  been  said  to  belong  to 
Americans. 

Dashing  ahead  has,  in  truth,  never  been  a  fault  of  agri- 
culturists. And  yet  if  investigation  and  general  enlargement 
of  views  are  important  for  any  body  of  workers,  they  are  su- 
premely necessary  for  the  farmer.  It  is  so  easy  to  be  swamped 
by  details  and  to  settle  down  into  the  "  good  old  ways."  One 
does  not  need  to  look  twice  to  see  how  agriculture,  led  by 
science,  is  advancing  by  leaps  and  bounds  away  from  the 
region  of  guesswork  to  that  of  solid  fact.  Never  before  have 
the  scientific  and  the  practical  gone  hand  in  hand  as  intimately 
as  they  do  to-day.  The  future  holds  out  rich  promise  to  those 
who  will  fraternally  unite  to  get  the  best  production  combined 
with  the  most  effective  distribution.  The  ambitious  gardener 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    27 

does  not  merely  fall  into  line.  He  must  lead  ;  he  must  control 
the  situation  ;  he  must  cooperate. 

Having  seen  what  the  world  demands,  we  must  prepare 
children  to  meet  it.  Yet  how  is  it  possible  for  mere  school 
children,  for  instance,  to  investigate  ?  One  way  is  by  study- 
ing some  model  farm.  The  model  farm  not  only  provokes 
inquiry,  but  sets  standards  and  fires  the  imagination.  Such  a 
farm  can  surely  be  found  not  too  far  from  home.  Nothing 
kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  young  students  so  much  as  a  visit 
to  one  of  these  industries.  Not  a  thing  will  escape  their  no- 
tice. Let  them,  if  possible,  come  face  to  face  with  the  very 
men  who  through  initiative  and  the  genius  of  hard  work  have 
reached  the  top  of  this  industry  and  have  dignified  their  occu- 
pation. Incidental  results  of  greatest  importance  have  also 
been  accomplished  by  such  a  visit.  It  certainly  quickens  a 
youngster's  ambition,  and  it  dignifies  in  his  mind  the  occupa- 
tion of  farming. 

Let  us  then  accompany  a  class  in  gardening  through  the 
chief  events  of  the  year  and  see  in  how  many  ways  their  real 
activities  are  aroused.  Since  collecting  evidence  takes  time, 
and  experimenting  is  slow  work,  the  preliminary  visit  of  in- 
vestigation should  be  made  in  the  autumn.  Other  visits  will 
follow,  in  turn,  to  truck  farms,  greenhouses,  and  markets.  By 
this  time  children  will  fairly  bubble  over  with  schemes  of  their 
own,  which  will  luckily  have  all  winter  in  which  to  simmer 
down.  There  are  plenty  of  outlets,  however,  for  surplus  en- 
ergy. Some  of  at  may  profitably  be  turned  toward  making  a 
map  of  their  own  land  to  scale.  Then  they  will  ransack  the 
local  libraries  for  books  on  agriculture,  and  collect  pictures 
and  catalogues.  Seeds  have  to  be  ordered  early.  Some  children 
will  become  interested  in  learning  how  to  test  them  ;  and  they 
can  show  the  others.  Those  wondrous  fruits  and  flowers  por- 
trayed in  the  seedsmen's  catalogues  bewitch  children  no  less 


28  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

than  their  elders,  so  that  they  will  make  at  first  ridiculously 
elaborate  planting  lists.  But  common  sense,  combined  with 
the  restrictions  of  pocket  money,  very  soon  reduces  the  items 
to  a  list  of  reasonable  length.  In  short,  there  is  so  much  to 
do  that  the  children  will  be  busy  every  day  painting  in  vivid 
colors  a  garden  in  Spain  which  is  destined,  in  part  at  least, 
to  come  true. 

To  go  from  fancy  to  fact  will  be  a  great  relief ;  and  so  all 
are  radiant  when  in  the  late  winter  indoor  planting  can  really 
begin  and  go  steadily  ahead.  The  seeds  will  be  started  in  the 
house ;  the  young  plants  will  be  transplanted,  first  to  a  frame, 
then  later  to  open  beds.  Much  interest  will  center  around  the 
plan  of  growing  the  same  sort  of  plants  under  widely  varying 
conditions.  These  will  be  valuable  experiences  and  will  reveal 
interesting  truths. 

As  the  weeks  fly  by,  happy  surprises  await  everybody.  New 
possibilities  occur  to  the  children  thick  and  fast.  Many  boys 
and  girls  will  have  drawn  their  families  and  all  their  relations 
—  their  whole  social  circle,  in  fact  —  into  this  whirlpool  of 
interest.  The  father  of  one  girl  turns  out  to  be  an  importer 
of  bulbs ;  the  uncle  of  another  lends  his  camera.  From  the 
north  end  of  the  town  arrives,  some  fine  day,  a  package  of 
seeds,  which  all  share  with  glee ;  from  the  south  side  comes 
a  carpenter's  offering  of  boards  for  a  cold  frame.  Current  num- 
bers of  outdoor  magazines  will  be  brought,  and  certain  mem- 
bers, on  request,  will  read  aloud  to  the  others  bits  of  garden 
lore  which  no  farmer  can  afford  to  miss.  Each  young  stu- 
dent catches  the  spirit  of  contributing  something,  no  matter 
how  little,  for  all  to  enjoy. 

The  ways  of  working  out  plans  are  bound  to  differ.  Some 
people  prefer  to  devise  and  perfect  by  themselves  a  scheme 
which  will  burst  upon  the  others  in  all  its  final  magnificence ; 
others  discover  that  a  bit  of  work  gains  in  scope  and  effect 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    29 

through  combination  with  others.  Of  course  in  these  exercises 
the  tiresome  school  etiquette  of  "no  communication  "  will 


FROM    FANCY    TO    FACT 


have  to  be  replaced  by  just  as  much  communication  as  pos- 
sible. But  in  the  ordinary  school  special  arrangements  must 
be  made  for  consultation.  Every  moment  becomes  so  pre- 
cious to  the  children  that  they  insist  on  its  being  put  to  the 


30  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

best  account;  consequently,  there  is  no  "fooling."  A  new 
sort  of.  vitality  leavens  the  whole  school.  If  one  word  could 
express._this,  it  would  be  the  word  "together."  It  marks  the 
beginning  of  conscious  cooperation  which  all  the  restless 
children  of  the  world  are  calling  for. 

But  now  to  the  garden.  It  is  April,  the  long-looked-for 
month  for  outdoor  planting.  Before  this  the  plan  of  the 
school  garden  will  have  been  finally  accepted  by  the  class. 
This  is,  of  course,  a  composite  plan.  It  is  made  up  of  contri- 
butions from  everybody.  Only  the  inner  circle  will  ever  know 
how  many  offerings,  how  many  sacrifices  of  personal  prefer- 
ence, will  have  been  made  for  the  good  of  the  whole.  Even 
the  pedagogue's  secret  fears  of  how  the  garden  will  strike  a 
critical  public  have  at  last  been  set  at  rest.  For  great  pains  is 
usually  taken  by  the  children  to  secure  an  attractive  appear- 
ance, although,  it  must  be  admitted,  tastes  differ  ;  and  taste  at 
thirteen  is  not  taste  at  thirty.  Suppose,  as  sometimes  happens, 
the  children  set  their  hearts  on  a  fantastic  shell  border  or 
rockery  or  arbor,  the  mention  of  which  is  enough  to  make 
some  teachers'  blood  run  cold,  for  of  all  things  a  teacher 
cannot  bear  to  be  thought  crude.  But  what  of  it  ?  The  essen- 
tials of  a  good  garden  are  not  affected  ;  so  why  cheat  the 
world  of  one  atom  of  the  delicious  spice  of  child  life?  More- 
over^ this  desire  may  mark  a  distinct  stage  in  the  children's 
development.  If  so,  may  they  not  better  pass  through  that 
stage  and  satisfy  the  longing  while  yet  children,  than  wait 
to  grow  up  and  inflict  upon  the  world  what  may  be  called 
millionaire  monstrosities  ? 

As  a  result  of  some  such  management  as  has  been  pictured, 
teachers  have  learned  that  with  assistance,  but  no  interference, 
a  tidy  kitchen  garden,  bordered  by  some  pretty  color  effects  in 
flowers,  may  be  confidently  expected,  and  that  no  one  need  be 
alarmed  if  it  should  be  emphasized,  here  and  there,  by  some 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    31 

original  departures  which  will  contribute  variety  and  possibly 
amusement.  Yet  whatever  the  garden  may  have  lost  in  for- 
mality, it  has  infinitely  gained  in  intrinsic  interest  from  the 
point  of  view  of  any  friend  of  children. 

As  the  summer  advances  there  is  always  less  deliberate 
planning  and  more  manual  work.  But  handicraft  and  nothing 
else  is,  of  course,  the  work  of  a  mere  laborer,  and  spading 
and  hoeing  are  not  and  never  will  be  of  themselves  inspiring 
occupations ;  so  the  garden  is  in  danger  of  losing  its'  highest 
value  unless  it  can  feed  curiosity  and  awaken  an  appetite  for 
investigation.  A  question  met  by  an  experiment,  a  doubt  met 
with  a  demonstration,  —  this  is  ever  how  men  have  been  learn- 
ing from  nature.  Moreover,  what  they  have  thus  really  learned 
they  want  to  tell.  What  greater  incentive,  indeed,  can  a  stu- 
dent have  thari  the  opportunity  of  convincing  his  classmates 
of  some  fact  that  he  has  been  working  out  experimentally  ? 
Having  at  last  got  his  answer,  he  almost  bursts  with  a  desire 
to  share  it.  Sometimes  it  will  happen  that  several  will  com- 
bine to  present  proofs  for  convincing  the  rest.  Again,  the 
whole  class  will  form  a  team  in  order  to  make  a  bit  of  inves- 
tigation, each  one  doing  his  part  toward  a  successful  issue. 

This  brings  us  to  the  most  effective  way  of  operating  the 
gardeners'  forces.  There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
whether  a  garden  is  best  worked  in  common  or  divided  into 
individual  beds.  Separate  ownership  of  the  various  plots,  as 
opposed  to  general  or  communal  ownership,  has  many  advo- 
cates. Certain  it  is  that  the  individual  plot  fosters  the  feel- 
ing of  proprietorship  and  personal  responsibility  ;  it  crowns 
with  more  or  less  justice  individual  fidelity.  It  is  indeed  very 
wholesome  for  any  young  person  to  gaze  upon  his  own  mis- 
takes and  triumphs  writ  large,  —  spread  out  in  plain  terms  of 
weeds  or  fruit.  Many  eloquent  lessons  can  thus  be  driven 
home  without  a  single  comment.  But  disputes  and  jealousies 


32  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

have  been  known  to  flourish,  too.  In  one  well-managed  gar- 
den it  is  the  custom  to  "  choose  partners  "  for  the  working 
of  each  plot.  This  is  certainly  a  step,  if  not  a  stride,  toward 
cooperation. ' 

Probably  the  ideal  way  to  utilize  the  highest  incentives  and 
bring  out  the  best  in  human  nature  is  through  harmonious 
little  partnerships  working  within  one  great  brotherhood. 
How  rare  it  is  for  grown  people  like  ourselves  to  do  their  most 
telling  work  in  isolation  !  And  is  it  not  true  that  some  highly 


PARTNERS 

gifted  and  efficient  persons  are  pitifully  limited  in  their  use- 
fulness just  because  they  cannot  work  with  others  ?  Each 
one  of  us  has  learned,  with  more  or  less  success,  to  reenforce 
his  own  peculiar  gifts  by  the  aid  of  criticism  from  efficient 
and  responsive  friends.  The  habit  —  one  may  truly  say  the 
talent  —  of  working  with  others  has  been  somehow  supposed 
to  develop  of  itself.  The  recognition  of  this  talent  as  a  force 
to  be  nurtured  and  utilized  during  the  period  of  school  life 
has,  some  believe,  been  too  long  neglected.  It  is  time  for 
schoolmen  to  realize  its  deep  significance. 

Let  us  listen  for  a  moment  to  what  is  being  said  by  men 
out  in  the  world  who  are  "  doing  things."  Not  long  ago 
the  managers  of  certain  important  business  enterprises  were 


WHAT  MAKES  A  SCHOOL  GARDEN  WORTH  WHILE    33 

discussing  the  relative  importance  of  traits  which  they  posi- 
tively required  in  their  employees.  W;th  not  a  shade  of  dis- 
agreement they  named  what  in  their  opinion  were  the  three 
highest  qualities,  in  the  following  order :  loyalty,  power  of 
cooperation,  efficiency.  A  schoolman  who  was  within  earshot 
began,  with  a  Knowledge-is-Power  air,  to  protest  against  this 
low  rating  of  efficiency.  But  his  academic  argument  was 
quickly  swept  off  its  feet.  The  reply  flashed  back  that  in 
real  life  efficiency,  admirable  though  it  is  of  course,  has  no 
positive  value  uncombined  with  loyalty  and  cooperation.  And 
they  would  not  yield  an  inch. 

There  is  a  long  list  of  incidental  values  to  be  gained  from 
a  well-conducted  garden.  These  may  be  reviewed  quickly. 
It  is,  for  instance,  a  great  thing  for  a  child  to  have  learned 
to  use  intelligently  the  multitude  of  books,  periodicals,  news- 
papers, maps,  tables,  and  reports  bearing  upon  the  business 
of  up-to-date  gardening.  The  vocabulary  of  a  state  statistician 
would  not  ordinarily  fit  the  comprehension  of  an  impulsive 
girl  of  fourteen.  But  if  this  girl  has  set  her  heart  on  getting 
for  her  friends  certain  information  which  they  must  have, 
rather  than  disappoint  them  she  will  make  it  her  business 
to  conquer  a  mere  matter  of  words. 

Under  the  pressure  of  such  a  purposeful  atmosphere  a  dic- 
tionary has  been  known  to  rise  many  degrees  in  importance 
in  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  From  a  mere  article  of  school- 
room furniture  it  can  become  a  highly  valued  friend.  Fur- 
thermore, respect  for  the  producer,  for  the  scholar,  for  any 
one  who  foregoes  his  own  ease  to  add  one  little  grain  to  the 
sum  of  human  welfare,  results  from  even  a  tiny  bit  of  real 
investigation  done  by  a  child,  of  whatever  age. 

The  garden  teacher,  meanwhile,  has  been  brought  into 
surprisingly  direct  and  human  relations  with  the  lives  of  his 
young  people  and  with  the  problems  of  the  community.  The 


34  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

quality  of  the  radishes  at  breakfast,  and  of  the  cabbage  and 
onions  at  dinner,  is  graciously  associated  with  a  teacher's  per- 
sonality ;  and  an  introduction  to  the  home  circle  as  "  Sammy's 
garden  teacher,"  accompanied  invariably  with  a  flourish, 
guarantees  a  warm  welcome. 

Association  with  the  daily  food  leads  to  other  confidences 
and  intimacies,  nobody  can  exactly  explain  how.  Such  par- 
ticipation in  the  family  life  of  the  neighborhood  becomes  a 
source  of  deepest  satisfaction  to  a  teacher ;  and  these  friend- 
ships are  real  because  they  are  mutual.  Best  of  all,  the  com- 
munity comes  into  its  own  by  cooperating  with  the  schools 
through  a  movement  whose  purposes  it  comprehends,  and 
to  the  prosperity  of  which  it  can  substantially  contribute. 

A  vegetable  and  flower  show  displaying  the  produce  of  a 
season,  attractively  set  out  for  the  inspection  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, may  easily  become  the  event  of  the  school  year.  Many 
a  plain  citizen,  who  has  long  hardened  his  heart  against  other 
pleadings,  will  be  enticed  to  such  a  festival.  Such  a  person 
may  turn  out  to  be  the  first  to  appreciate  "  education  by 
actualities,"  to  promote  among  the  young  folks  gardening  as 
an  occupation.  There  is  certainly  foundation  for  believing 
that  school  and  home  gardening  is  opening  up  to  young 
people,  especially  to  girls,  an  excellent  means  of  livelihood. 
Women  specialists  in  gardening  assure  us  that  although  it 
demands  hard  work  and  business  methods,  it  is  attractive, 
it  is  health-giving,  and  it  pays.  What  a  school  garden  does 
toward  such  an  end  is  to  enlarge  the  arch  of  experience 
through  which  one's  life  work  may  be  seen. 

Whether  the  value  of  a  school  garden  is  viewed  from  the 
angle  of  useful  knowledge,  or  from  the  angle  of  the  scientific 
spirit,  or  from  the  still  wider  viewpoint  of  practice  in  the  art  of 
living,  it  is  warranted  to  be  worth  while.  But  its  .greatest  les- 
sons, after  all,  we  believe,  will  be  lessons  in  the  art  of  living. 


CHAPTER  II 
LITTLE  STUDIES  IN  COOPERATION 

The  hunger  for  brotherhood  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  unrest  of  the  modern 
civilized  world.  —  GEORGE  FREDERICK  WATTS 

In  the  labyrinth  of  garden  possibilities  through  which  we 
have  been  threading  our  way,  two  have  been  constantly  attract- 
ing our  attention  :  training  in  science  and  training  in  coop- 
eration. Suppose  we  were  accused  of  setting  upon  these  too 
high  a  value.  This  charge  might  be  made  in  all  sincerity ; 
and  it  might  be  admitted,  too,  provided  our  attention  were 
riveted  upon  school  problems  alone  and  not  upon  world  prob- 
lems. But  out  in  the  world  both  science  and  cooperation  play 
leading  roles  in  each  day's  business,  great  and  small.  The 
role  of  science  is  to  develop  the  type  of  mind  which  in  its 
humdrum  aspect  can  turn  its  attention  to  inhibiting  snap 
judgments  or  to  sterilizing  the  baby's  milk,  but  which  can, 
nevertheless,  perform  equally  well  the  supreme  service  of 
discovering  the  typhoid  germ. 

Cooperation  renders  its  peculiar  service  by  developing  lead- 
ership and  initiative,  —  not  initiative  in  school  sports  and 
school  debates  alone,  but  initiative  that  makes  the  worker 
forge  ahead  in  studies  that  connect  with  the  larger  if  not  the 
more  real  world  of  civic  activity  and  household  economics. 
Said  the  child,  struggling  to  define  salt,  "  It 's  the  stuff 
that  when  it  is  n't  in  things  makes  them  taste  bad."  Likewise 
of  cooperation  it  may  be  said  that,  when  it  isn't  in  things, 
they  go,  oh  !  so  badly.  This,  of  course,  is  simply  because  we 
do  not  see  what  the  other  fellow  is  driving  at. 

35 


36  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

Active  cooperative  association  permits  rare  intimacy  with 
other  souls,  so  that  cooperation  may  be  said  to  be  a  great 
revealer  of  character.  Scarcely  an  emergency  in  life  arises 
where  a  just  estimate  of  human  nature  is  not  acutely  needed. 
Even  in  the  sporting  world  it  does  not  come  amiss,  judging 
by  that  delicious  bit  of  dialogue  between  young  Nathaniel 
Shaler  and  the  village  character,  who,  it  will  be  remembered, 
invariably  got  licked.1 

"  Sam,  you  ought  to  quit  fighting  ;  you  are  n't  good  at  it." 

"  My  boy,"  said  he,  "I  am  the  best  fighter  in  this  here 
county,  but  I  ain't  good  at  judging  men." 

The  point  need  not  be  argued  further,  that  science  and 
cooperation  go  far  toward  making  the  sort  of  men  and  women 
the  world  wants.  If  this  is  true,  then  the  school  world  must 
in  time  adequately  educate  in  these  two  directions.  The  cause 
of  science  has  already  many  champions  ;  and  yet  the  very 
ones  who  are  hot  for  science  training  in  the  schools  are  some- 
times lukewarm  in  the  matter  of  training  for  cooperation. 
In  the  course  of  one  short  discussion  on  school  management 
all  sorts  of  conflicting  opinions  may  be  heard.  One  person 
sticks  to  it  that  school  life  should  be  and  is  competitive,  while 
another  contends  that  the  present-day  schoolroom  is  in  essence 
not  competitive.  And  then  the  talk  wanders  from  the  point, 
till  some  speaker  feels  obliged  to  proclaim  that  in  many  a 
school  harmony  reigns,  that  noble  and  generous  personal  traits 
are  fostered,  and  that  truth,  courtesy,  and  love  for  knowledge 
are  daily  held  up  by  devoted  teachers  to  docile  pupils.  Not 
for  a  moment  can  this  be  doubted.  The  Pied  Piper  may 
never  so  successfully  charm  his  young  flock  into  following 
him  through  the  flowery  fields  of  learning,  and  yet  in  all  the 
measures  they  tread  there  may  not  be  one  cooperative  step. 
They  advance,  to  be  sure,  but  without  getting  any  dicipline  in 

1  "The  Autobiography  of  Nathaniel  Southgate  Shaler." 


LITTLE  STUDIES  IN   COOPERATION  37 

leadership  or  in  loyalty  to  leaders.  A  person  is  a  born  leader 
just  as  truly  as  he  is  a  born  teacher,  doctor,  or  actor,  no  more 
and  no  less.  To  work  in  the  highest  sense  cooperatively  one 
must  be  trained.  Since  we  so  glibly  say  that  we  are  educating 
children  for  life,  a  timely  question  arises,  Are  we  educating 
them  for  the  cooperative  or  for  the  competitive  life?  and, 
putting  aside  any  reasons  we  may  have  for  pursuing  one  or 
the  other  of  these  two  courses,  should  we  not  in  justice  to 
society  be  consistent  ? 

On  scrutinizing  the  beautiful  fabric  of  life  in  the  school- 
room, do  we  not  discover,  running  through  it,  many  ugly  com- 
petitive threads  ?  Look,  for  instance,  at  the  whole  system  of 
school  prizes,  —  for  these  still  exist,  even  though  they  mas- 
querade under  various  names.  There  are  competitive  examina- 
tions, rank  lists,  graded  seating,  promotions,  and  marks,  — 
for  marks  are  ever  with  us.  Competition,  we  may  conclude, 
is,  on  the  whole,  antisocial.  The  boy  or  girl,  a  social  creature 
by  nature,  is  through  the  arts  of  the  schoolroom  molded  into 
the  "  model  scholar."  Perhaps  his  most  conspicuous  trait 
hinges  on  habitually  minding  his  own  business. 

"  Don't  you  find  kindergarten  children  inclined  to  be  rest- 
less ?"  said  a  visitor  to  a  sour-looking  primary  teacher,  whose 
class  had  been  sitting  all  too  long  in  the  "  first  position." 

"  Only  the  first  day  or  two,  for  I  mold  them  —  mold  them," 
she  answered. 

The  Procrustean  methods  formerly  used  in  such  transfor- 
mations are  by  a  very  short  span  of  years  removed  from  our 
own  day.  President  Briggs,1  for  example,  reminds  us  that  in 
his  own  school  days  "  the  boy  who  turned  his  head  round  to 
the  boy  behind  had  to  stand  on  the  platform  with  a  spring 
clothespin  on  his  nose  till  he  saw  another  boy  turn  his  head 
and  transferred  the  clothespin  to  him." 

1  Le  Baron  Briggs,  School,  College,  and  Character. 


38  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

The  Lend-a-Hand  motto  has  proved  an  inspiring  guide 
for  life  at  home  and  out  in  the  world  ;  but  is  it  a  suitable  or 
safe  motto  for  the  routine  of  the  grade  school  ?  Or  would  it 
be  necessary  to  slightly  adapt  it  ?  Twist  it,  for  instance,  into 
something  like  this  :  "  Look  down,  not  up  ;  look  in,  not  out ; 
and  don't  —  as  you  value  your  rank  —  lend  a  hand."  Yet 
however  well  this  version  might  have  suited  the  model  scholar 
of  the  old  days,  it  will  not  do  for  one  of  the  new.  Surely  no 
cooperative  fish  could  swim  in  such  a  sea  of  isolation. 

Hundreds  of  teachers  and  parents  would  gladly  banish 
most  forms  of  competition  that  still  haunt  the  schoolroom  ; 
but  many  of  these  very  persons  hesitate  lest,  deprived  of  in- 
centive, a  school  might,  like  fatigued,  flabby  muscle,  lose  what 
is  known  as  tonicity.  Comparatively  few  seem  to  have  con- 
sidered whether,  on  the  contrary,  a  school  might  not  regain 
tone  and  even  more  vigorous  health  by  adopting  methods  of 
cooperation.  Some  have  not  been  afraid  to  try. 

Stationed  on  the  frontiers  of  the  educational  world  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic  there  are  pioneer  schools  working  on 
distinctly  cooperative  lines.  In  these  the  pith  and  core  of  a 
part,  at  least,  of  the  instruction  consists  of  practice  in  the  art 
of  cooperation,  technically  called  self-organized  group  work. 
That  the  cooperative  method  in  study  is  a  life  principle,  and 
not  a  device  to  exploit  certain  pet  subjects,  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  its  value  is  not  limited  to  any  selected  studies. 
Whether  it  is  applied  to  -the  dramatization  of  a  fable  in  an 
English  class  by  a  group  of  six-year-olds,  on  the  one  hand, 
or  to  Roman  history  in  a  high  school  on  the  other,  it  works 
equally  well. 

As  has  already  been  hinted,  a  garden  makes  a  most  effective 
stage  setting  for  the  drama  of  cooperation.  A  very  spirited 
comedy  of  this  sort  was  recently  enacted  in  a  school  for  older 
girls.  Here  a  class  numbering  seventy-five  recently  conducted 


LITTLE  STUDIES   IN  COOPERATION  39 

a  school  garden  as  a  part  of  their  course  in  botany.  This  they 
did  wholly  themselves,  although  the  advice  of  a  teacher  was 
always  at  their  command.  The  girls  organized,  electing  offi- 
cers and  forming  committees.  Then  the  garden  was  plotted, 
the  soil  prepared,  the  seeds  sown,  and  the  tools  distributed 
and  kept  in  order.  Moreover,  what  was  by  far  the  most  diffi- 
cult problem,  the  program  of  work  and  the  allotment  of  time 
were  self-determined.  The  whole  business  was  run  with  a 
more  even  and  just  distribution  of  labor,  and  with  far  more 
harmony  and  satisfaction,  —  no  easy  matter  where  so  many 
were  concerned,  —  than  if  their  teacher  had  managed  it. 
So  at  least  admits  the  teacher.  This  test  is  certainly  a  fair 
one  to  apply.  For  if  cooperation  proposes  to  do  the  world's 
work  better  than  individualism  has  done  it,  then  it  must  do 
the  work  of  the  school  better  than  individualism  can  do  it. 
In  the  case  just  quoted,  however,  it  should  be  explained  that 
this  was  not  by  any  means  the  girls'  first  experience  in  self- 
organized  work,  although  it  was  their  first  attempt  in  cooper- 
ative gardening.  Many  difficulties  in  technic,  therefore,  had 
already  been  met  and  overcome. 

The  experiment  proved'  quite  worth  undertaking,  if  only  to 
show  what  practice  does  in  developing  team  play  in  school 
work  and  among  girls.  The  details  are  given  by  the  girls 
themselves  in  the  following  report : 

REPORT  OF  THE  GARDEN  WORK  OF   SECTION  FIVE1 

The  members  of  Section  Five  decided,  in  March,  1909,  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  the  garden  work ;  they  agreed  that  it  would  require  the 
best  efforts  of  every  girl  in  order  to  make  the  business  a  success. 

The  first  matter  to  be  decided  upon  was  the  selection  of  seeds.  A 
committee  of  three  members  was  elected ;  they  elected  a  chairman  who 
consulted  with  Miss  W.  as  to  the  required  seeds.  It  was  found  that  every 

1  Written  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee. 


40  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

section  must  plant  the  following  vegetable  seeds :  beans,  beets,  lettuce, 
and  radishes.  There  were  ten  kinds  of  flower  seeds,  however,  from 
which  four  might  be  selected.  The  chairman  of  the  seed  committee  em- 
bodied this  in  her  report.  The  section  voted  for  the  following  seeds: 
nasturtium,  cosmos,  sweet  alyssum,  and  California  poppy. 

The  committee  visited  various  seed  firms  in  the  city  and  reported 
their  discoveries  to  the  class.  Each  girl  contributed  seven  cents,  for  the 
agent  had  agreed  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  section  for  a  dollar  and  a 
quarter.  The  seeds  were  bought  by  weight,  not  by  package ;  packages 
cost  too  much. 

The  committee,  with  the  assistance  of  several  other  girls,  divided  the 
seeds  among  the  eighteen  girls  of  the  section.  It  was,  of  course,  a  great 
deal  of  work ;  yet  in  the  end  it  was  more  satisfactory.  We  found  that  seeds 
that  came  in  packages  were  of  a  poorer  quality  than  the  seeds  we  used. 

The  section  then  elected  a  garden  committee  of  three  members  and  a 
tool  committee  of  two  members. 

The  first  work  of  the  garden  committee  was  the  measuring  of  the 
land.  The  land  allotted  to  us  was  in  two  parts :  one  piece  measured  1 8 
by  44  feet ;  the  other  piece  measured  1 8  by  20  feet.  The  garden  commit- 
tee divided  the  first  piece  into  7  plots  each  1 6  by  4  feet,  allowing  two  feet 
for  a  path  at  the  back  of  the  garden,  and  allowing  for  two-foot  paths 
between  the  plots.  The  second  piece  of  land  was  divided  into  three  plots 
1 6 by 4  feet;  one  of  these  plots  was  used. as  an  observation  bed. 

The  girls  chose  partners.  Each  pair  chose  one  of  the  plots,  which 
they  staked  off  with  strings.  Then  they 'divided  the  plots  into  halves, 
each  girl  taking  one  half,  8  by  4  feet.  The  garden  committee  super- 
vised the  work,  seeing  that  the  strings  were  even,  and  verifying  all  the 
measurements. 

The  ground  was  broken  in  April.  Each  girl  spaded,  raked,  and  hoed 
her  own  garden.  The  ambitious  ones  sifted  the  soil;  the  others  con- 
tented themselves  with  taking  out  the  big  stones.  It  was  a  long  piece 
of  work,  but  the  gardens  were  finally  ready  for  the  seeds. 

The  committee  tried  to  arrange  the  seeds  so  that  the  effect  would  be 
harmonious  when  the  flowers  were  in  bloom.  A  given  number  of  inches 
was  allowed  for  each  plant.  There  were  two  rows  of  lettuce  and  two 
rows  of  sweet  alyssum.  Of  everything  else  there  was  one  row.  The  girls 
measured  off  the  number  of  inches  required  for  each  plant,  and  staked 
off  each  spac*e  with  string.  The  committee  supervised  the  work,  seeing 
that  the  measurements  agreed  and  that  the  strings  were  straight. 


LITTLE  STUDIES   IN  COOPERATION  41 

The  girls  dug  trenches  for  the  seeds  ;  they  followed  the  strings  in  dig- 
ging. A  prepared  chart  gave  them  the  necessary  knowledge  in  regard 
to  depth  of  planting. 

After  the  seeds  had  been  planted,  most  of  the  girls  mulched  and  culti- 
vated the  beds.  Every  one  was  pleased  with  the  rapid  progress  of  those 
gardens. 

Each  girl  took  care  of  her  own  bed  in  regard  to  mulching,  watering, 
weeding,  etc.  Each  girl  also  took  care  of  the  path  on  the  side  of  the 
garden  nearest  the  school. 

The  tool  committee  took  care  of  all  the  garden  implements  whenever 
the  whole  section  worked  together.  When  only  two  or  three  girls  worked, 
each  was  held  responsible  for  the  tools  which  she  used. 

Simultaneously  with  the  work  on  the  individual  beds,  the  work  on  the 
observation  bed  was  carried  on.  The  bed  was  spaded,  raked,  and  hoed ; 
the  large  stones  were  taken  out,  and  the  soil  was  sifted.  We  planned  to 
plant  tomatoes  in  half  the  bed,  and  devote  the  other  half  to  experiments 
in  mulching  and  depth  of  planting.  Later  we  changed  our  plans.  We 
planted  half  the  bed  with  tomatoes  and  cabbages.  The  other  half 
we  planted  with  asters  and  geraniums.  The  chief  benefit  we  derived 
from  this  bed  was  practice  in  transplanting ;  all  the  plants  were  trans- 
planted into  the  observation  bed,  and  the  girls  were  able  to  watch 
their  progress. 

The  garden  committee  supervised  all  the  work  on  the  individual  beds. 
If  any  garden  seemed  to  need  care,  its  owner  was  notified  at  once.  In 
the  general  work,  such  as  straightening  the  paths,  and  work  on  the  obser- 
vation bed,  the  committee  tried  to  apportion  the  work  evenly,  so  that 
each  girl  should  have  an  opportunity  to  do  something  for  the  section  as 
a  whole. 

When  school  was  about  to  close,  each  girl  selected  one  week  of  vaca- 
tion, in  which  she  agreed  to  take  care  of  the  gardens  of  the  section.  Each 
girl,  after  visiting  the  gardens,  sent  a  postal  to  Miss  W.  telling  her  of  the 
work  she  had  done  during  her  visit.  The  plan  worked  very  well ;  at  the 
end  of  the  vacation  Section  Five's  plot  was  in  very  good  condition. 

The  reason  for  the  smoothness  of  the  section's  work  was  the  fact  that 
the  girls  were  so  united ;  on  the  whole  they  were  very  cooperative.  Of 
course  some  had  the  interests  of  the  class  at  heart  in  a  greater  degree 
than  jDthers ;  that  is  to  be  expected.  But  they  all  worked  hard ;  and 
it  was  the  harmonious  working  of  the  girls  with  their  committees  and 
Miss  W.  that  made  the  work  succeed, 


42  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

While  scholars  are  growing  in  moral  and  intellectual  vigor 
as  they  practice  cooperation,  the  teacher  gets  insight  into 
human  nature,  and  wisdom  for  further  guidance,  through 
studying  the  play  of  cooperative  forces.  As  has  been  more 
than  once  suggested,  watching  the  formation  of  groups  among 
students  who  have  perfect  freedom  to  combine  as  they  please 
brings  great  returns.  The  youngsters  of  unlike  dispositions 
and  different  intellectual  and  social  gifts  often  seem  pecu- 
liarly drawn  to  one  another.  And  yet  what  the  combinations 
are  that  will  blend  harmoniously  cannot  be  predicted  by  the 
wisest.  The  reactions  are  as  mysterious  as  those  that  take 
place  in  the  chemical  laboratory,  where  a  tiny  globule  of  crys- 
tal-clear fluid  is  dropped  into  a  test  tube  containing  a  second 
colorless  fluid,  and  lo  !  a  beautiful  play  of  color.  In  the  words 
of  the  butler  in  the  play,  "  You  never  can  tell,  sir,  you  never 
can  tell." 

At  the  call  of  a  school  emergency  it  may  happen  that 
some  scholar  whose  ability  has  always  struck  the  school- 
master as  mediocre  is  all  of  a  sudden  voted  by  his  classmates 
into  a  position  of  importance.  The  teacher's  first  impulse  — 
as  natural  as  the  breath  he  draws  —  is  to  interfere.  Instead, 
however,  he  waits.  As  the  game  of  life  goes  on,  he  is  sur- 
prised to  find  that  the  judgment  of  this  newly  elected  leader, 
however  slow,  is  sound;  his  determination,  firm.  By  the  grace 
of  some  hidden  force  he  is  making  good.  Every  comrade  is 
standing  by  him.  At  the  finish  this  boy's  efficiency,  hitherto 
un guessed  by  his  teacher,  has  completely  justified  the  confi- 
dence which  "the  fellows"  placed  in  him.  •  On  the  playground 
such  revelations  are  common,  but  all  too  rare  in  school ! 

And  yet  it  must  ever  be  a  matter  for  regret  that  so  often 
the  strength  of  a  child's  personality  lies  sleeping  until  school 
days  are  finished,  —  all  too  early,  perhaps,  —  and  life  takes  him 
up.  In  the  stress  of  life  surely  he  is  judged  by  his  fellows. 


LITTLE  STUDIES   IN  COOPERATION  43 

Is  not  the  divining  rod,  if  there  is  such  a  thing,  usually 
held  by  one's  peers,  be  they  five  years  old  or  fifty  ?  At  any 
rate,  students  certainly  make  wonderful  guesses,  and  they  hit 
the  mark  at  least  as  often  as  professors. 

A  grown  person  who  watches  and  studies  the  personalities 
in  a  self-organized  group  of  children  arrives  at  certain  con- 
clusions. Such  a  group,  intent  on  its  own  serious  business, 
has  no  use  for  mere  talk  ;  nevertheless  any  member  who  can 
argue  well  and  can  win  support  for  some  precious  plan  is  a 
real  acquisition.  Common  sense,  a  gift  which  takes  prizes 
out  in  the  world,  but  which  in  the  classroom  scarcely  gets 
honorable  mention,  here  in  the  heat  of  action  carries  off 
many  a  blue  ribbon ;  whereas  the  wage  of  the  habitual 
"windbag"  or  lazybones  is  that  he  is  not  welcome  in  any 
group,  and  is  forced  to  right-about-face  or  have  a  lonely  time 
of  it.  The  sting  of  being  left  out  when  "  all  the  fellows  " 
are  carrying  out  "  great  old  plans  "  hurts  him  more  than  the 
loss  of  fifty  credits  decreed  by  a  spectacled  teacher. 

Fortunately,  when  a  plan  is  being  carried  out  at  white  heat, 
a  place  is  usually  found,  even  at  the  eleventh  hour,  for  every- 
body who  can  contribute  anything.  At  such  a  crisis  a  pupil 
who  is  .backward  at  books,  who  stutters,  —  it  may  be  out 
of  sheer  self-consciousness,  —  whose  memory  for  dates  and 
schoolbook  phrases  plays  him  mortifying  tricks,  whose  in- 
difference during  recitations  has  soured  into  actual  mischief- 
making,  may  suddenly  find  himself  committed  to  a  piece  of 
real  business  that  brings  out  the  man  in  him. 

One  simple  incident  will  drive  this  home.  It  happened 
one  spring  afternoon  at  the  garden  lesson.  The  dunce  of  a 
grammar  school  class  —  whose  mind,  poor  chap,  was  scarcely 
normal  —  took  his  place  as  a  real  person  among  classmates 
who  had  hitherto  totally  ignored  his  existence.  Eddie  had 
learned,  never  mind  in  what  stern  school  of  life,  the  meaning 


44  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

of  labor.  The  tasks  in  the  garden  had  to  be  finished  by  sun- 
set ;  a  dozen  shrubs  were  waiting  to  be  set  out,  and  there  was 
much  tidying  up  to  do.  The  mercury  stood  in  the  eighties. 
The  patience  of  the  class  had  almost  reached  the  exhaustion 
point,  when  this  boy  showed  his  mastery  of  spade  and  hoe. 
The  others  hallooed  to  him  from  plot  to  plot.  He  came  run- 
ning in  answer,  giving  here  advice,  there  encouragement,  and 
to  everybody  some  sort  of  lift.  For  once  they  were  the  children 
and  he  was  the  man.  It  felt  good  ;  his  face,  which  habitually 
expressed  vacancy  and  despondency,  now  radiated  happiness  ; 
through  the  joy  of  service  he  had  found  himself.  This  lad 
could  never  have  satisfactorily  designed  a  vegetable  garden ; 
neither  could  he  have  correctly  calculated  the  pounds  of  fer- 
tilizer needed  for  the  experiment  beds.  Measured  by  such 
yardsticks  he  would  probably  always  come  short,  but  here 
he  measured  generously;  he  was  a  perfect  fit.  It  is  good 
for  everybody  sometimes  to  "just  fit." 

The  teacher's  sympathies,  once  having  stretched  to  com- 
prehend touching  revelations  of  human  nature  such  as  this, 
can  never  contract  again  to  precisely  their  former  compass ; 
and  so  he  goes  on  enlarging  through  each  new  experience. 
Who  can  wonder  that  a  teacher  longs  to  provide  in  school  the 
conditions  under  which  such  experiences  are  possible  ? 

So  far  a  special  effort  has  been  made  to  discuss  the  claims 
of  gardening,  and  its  methods  of  promoting  science  and  co- 
operation, as  viewed  through  the  eyes  of  general  education. 
An  important  question  will  be  that  of  extending  the  garden- 
ing interests  which  have  been  aroused  in  school  out  into  the 
farming  world.  The  word  that  modern  agriculture  has  to  say 
to  the  boy  or  girl  who  is  considering  farming  as  a  vocation  or 
as  an  avocation  remains  to  be  heard.  This  will  be  discussed  in 
a  later  chapter,  The  New  Agriculture.  The  immediate  question 
is  where  to  find  available  spots  suitable  for  school  gardens. 


CHAPTER  III 

SITUATION  AND  SOIL 
In  the  hands  of  man  there  are  no  unfertile  soils. —  P.  KROPOTKIN 

There  has  lately  been  a  great  awakening  in  regard  to  cer- 
tain needs  of  children.  This  is  shown  by  the  suggestion  that 
all  the  schools  of  a  big  city  should  be  transferred  to  the  sub- 
urbs. Think  what 'it  would  mean  if  the  hundreds  of  children 
now  doubled  over  desks  in  dingy  buildings  could  every  day 
be  conveyed  to  regions  of  sunny  space,  playgrounds,  and 
gardens  ;  yet  so  sharply  does  this  proposition  conflict  with 
the  ancient  notion .  of  a  bookish  education  that  it  was  at 
first  taken  as  a  joke.  Before  long  it  began  to  be  seriously 
discussed.  The  idea  is  gaining  ground,  until  now  it  may  be 
considered  as  an  actual  promise  for  the  future.  There  is  in 
sight,  too,  a  happy  day  when  the  garden  will  be  called  upon 
to  take  its  place  in  the  scheme  of  education  and  to  fulfill  its 
social  and  scientific  possibilities. 

These  are  certainly  in  no  danger  of  being  exaggerated. 
One  educational  leader1  does  not  hesitate  to  use  these  words  : 
"  The  most  workable  living  laboratory  of  any  dimensions  is 
the  school  garden.  .  .  .  The  time  is  coming  when  such  a 
laboratory  will  be  as  much  a  part  of  a  good  school  equip- 
ment as  blackboards,  books,  and  charts  are  now."  With  such 
a  prophecy  ringing  in  our  ears,  we  cannot  simply  fold  our 
hands  and  wait.  There  is,  indeed,  all  the  more  pressing 
need  for  small  beginnings,  for  it  is  these  that  convince  a 

i  Charles  W.  Eliot. 
45 


46  GARDENS  AND  THEIR   MEANING 

public.  Once  resolved  to  try,  opportunity  comes  halfway  to 
meet  us.  In  fact,  many  an  unexpected  one  stands  knocking 
at  our  very  doors.  Even  a  tiny  plot,  hearth-rug  size,  can  be 
made  to  do  duty  as  a  garden,  inasmuch  as  in  these  days  of 
intensive  farming  the  size  of  a  field  is  the  very  least  of  its 
assets.  Says  an  expert  farmer  who  heartily  encourages  the 
pocket-edition  garden:  "No  man  knows  yet  the  capacity  for 
plant  growth  of  one  square  yard  of  earth."  Large  fields,  then, 
may  be  dispensed  with,  but  this  cannot  be  said  of  large  enthu- 
siasms. Especially  in  the  early  steps  of  pioneering  there  is 
needed  a  discerning  eye  and  an  understanding  heart. 

A  champion  of  children's  gardens  is  found  in  Uncle  John,1 
long  the  devoted  garden  correspondent  of  so  many  boys  and 
girls  the  country  over.  His  enthusiasm  is  such  that  all  those 
about  him  catch  fire.  Just  one  little  incident  will  show  how 
far  the  sparks  may  fly.  One  spring  morning  he  made  with 
some  friends  a  pilgrimage  to  old  Boston.-  Rambling  through 
the  North  End,  they  came  upon  the  Old  North  Church, 
and,  like  all  visitors,  climbed  a  hundred  or  more  steps  to  get 
a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  famous  landmarks.  Uncle  John  had 
scarcely  reached  the  top  when  he  burst  out,  "  Look  at  all 
the  little  gardens  !  "  True  enough,  viewed  from  this  his- 
toric tower,  the  whole  region,  in  spite  of  crowded  tenements 
and  crooked  streets,  might  fitly  have  been  named  the  garden 
quarter  of  the  town.  Eor  as  far  as  eye  could  reach,  gay  little 
gardens  dotted  the  housetops  and  fire  escapes.  They  were 
springing  out  of  window  boxes,  old  pans,  cracked  dishes,  and 
what  not.  On  every  side  the  exquisite  young  green  of  garlic, 
lettuce,  radishes,  and  onions  was  stretched  up  in  response  to 
the  coaxing  warmth  of  a  ten  o'clock  sun,  while  nasturtiums 
and  morning-glories  were  winding  and  twining  around  what- 
ever their  tendril  fingers  could  clasp,  here  on  a  spout  and  there 

1  John  \V.  Spencer,  Ithaca,  New  York. 


SITUATION  AND  SOIL  47 

on  a  clothes  pole,  their  blossoms  flashing  here  and  there 
through  the  green. 

The  foot  passenger  hurrying  along  the  thoroughfare,  or 
threading  his  way  through  the  dim  alley,  would  never  by  the 
wildest  chance  guess  what  is  going  on  up  above  the  noisy 
world.  And  yet  this  striking  picture,  if  only  he  could  see  it, 
would  go  far  to  convince  him  of  two  things:  that  nature,  if 
she  is  coaxed  ever  so  gently,  will  come  more  than  halfway  to 
meet  a  plant  lover,  and  that  hard-pressed  human  beings  are 
eager  to  make  sacrifices  for  the  sake  of  some  green  things 
a-growing,  and  so  turn  the  most  impossible  spots  into  gardens. 

Of  all  the  significant  details  before  him  not  one  escaped 
the  swift  eye  of  Uncle  John,  wrho  interpreted  them  to  his 
ready  listeners.  The  actual  result  of  the  climb  to  the  steeple's 
height  turned  out  in  the  end  to  be  not  so  much  a  tribute  to 
the  historic  past  as  the  awakening  in  these  pilgrims  of  a 
desire  to  understand  present  issues  and  to  speed  the  civiliz- 
ing forces  of  the  future. 

The  best  possible  outcome  of  such  an  expedition  would 
take  some  practical  form.  It  might  be  the  prompt  canvass 
of  one's  own  neighborhood  to  learn  what  could  be  done  to 
encourage  school  and  home  gardens.  And  then  the  question 
would  arise  as  to  available  land  and  how  to  pick  out  the  most 
suitable  spots.  In  the  ideal  situation  there  is  no  doubt  that 
one  of  the  "  must  haves  "  is  a  flood  of  morning  and  midday 
sunshine.  The  afternoon  sun  does  not  count  for  so  much ; 
it  is  in  fact  a  "  may  have."  If  the  land  can  further  oblige 
by  sloping  gently  toward  the  south  and  east,  it  will  be  to  its 
advantage.  This  slight  incline,  too,  is  a  point  in  favor  of 
good  drainage,  only  it  should  not  actually  lie  on  a  hillside, 
or  the  richness  of  the  soil  will  be  washed  away. 

Next,  the  chosen  spot  begs  protection  from  north  winds. 
Sufficient  shelter  is  often  afforded  by  a  building,  a  high  fence, 


48  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

or  a  clump  of  trees.  And  yet  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
the  presence  of  trees  within  the  garden  itself  or  crowding 
about  it  means  mischief.  The  reason  is  not  merely  because 
they  shut  out  sun,  but  because  their  roots  thread  the  ground 
to  almost  incredible  distances.  A  network  of  roots  running 
beneath  the  turf  in  every  direction  and  striking  deep  tells  its 
own  story.  It  is  that  the  roots  are  drinking  up  from  the  soil 
the  food  for  which,  if  they  are  planted  too  near,  your  precious 
crops  will  be  hungering.  The  elm  tree,  for  instance,  is  said 
to  be  the  worst  enemy  a  garden  can  have.  Its  roots  steal 
away  hundreds  of  feet  to  get  nourishment.  When  once  the 
site  has  been  favorably  passed  upon,  the  next  move  is  to 
study  its  special  peculiarities,  taking  into  account  all  its  strong 
points  and  making  each  score  for  all  it  is  worth.  Since  every 
set  of  conditions  differs,  slightly  at  least,  from  every  other, 
no  garden  is  in  danger  of  being  a  replica  of  another.  And 
yet  kindred  difficulties  will  confront  gardens  great  and  small. 
Some  of  the  most  serious  are  a  scanty  measure  of  sun,  poor 
soil,  and  exposure  to  the  ravages  of  obstreperous  animals. 
Lack  of  sun,  as  has  already  been  said,  is  the  worst  fault  a 
garden  battles  with,  and  yet,  even  when  the  only  spot  in 
the  neighborhood  for  a  school  garden  is  too  deeply  shaded, 
the  plucky  gardener  will  not  own  himself  beaten.  To  be 
sure,  he  cannot  move  buildings  or  cut  down  trees,  but  he  can 
cherish  every  possible  ray  of  sunshine,  and  he  can  make  up 
his  planting  list  from  the  various  desirable  plants  that  can 
brave  shade.  Madam  Nature  herself,  as  we  know,  succeeds 
in  making  many  an  unsunned  wilderness  burst  into  blossom. 
In  the  case  of  schools  which  have  a  moderate-sized  yard, 
the  choice  is  often  made  between  a  garden  and  a  playground. 
Opinion  is  divided.  Some  persons  believe  that  the  aims  of 
the  two  are  nearly  identical,  and  that  one  supplies  the  place 
of  the  other,  while  others,  on  the  contrary,  fear  lest  the 


SITUATION  AND  SOIL 


49 


interests  will  seriously  clash.  As  a  matter  of  fact  each  is  vitally 
important  in  its  own  way.  The  combination  of  playground 
and  garden,  if  well  managed,  has  really  a  good  deal  to  recom- 
mend it.  Well-defined  boundaries,  of  course,  there  would  have 
to  be,  and  the  garden  would  need  some  special  means  of  pro- 
tection. For  instance,  one  large  city  playground,  laid  out  a 
few  years  ago  by  a  civic  association,  is  bordered  by  a  strip  of 
garden  land  divided  into  beds  two  or  three  feet  in  width. 


THE    FIRST    ATTACK 

The  suburban  and  country  gardener  often  has  good  reason 
to  grumble.  But  his  grievances  are  a  drop  in  the  bucket  com- 
pared with  those  of  a  city  gardener,  who  is  often  at  his  wits' 
end  to  adapt  a  garden  to  his  surroundings.  Scant  sunshine, 
shallow  soil,  or  even  a  sun-baked  pavement  are  likely  to  be 
his  portion. 

Whoever  is  bent  on  starting  a  school  garden  begins,  of 
course,  by  inspecting  the  school  yard.  Nearly  every  school 
building  has  a  yard,  or  an  apology  for  one,  which  can  some- 
how be  turned  to  account.  Even  supposing  it  is  bricked, 


50  GARDENS  AND  THEIR   MEANING 

permission  can  generally  be  obtained  to  take  up  the  pavement. 
Bricks  are  not  such  sacred  things,  and  they  weigh  as  nothing 
in  the  balance  with  education.  In  case,  however,  any  worthy 
city  fathers  are  inclined  to  hesitate,  it  may  be  remembered 
that  no  voices  in  the  community  can  be  lifted  in  a  more 
stirring  appeal  than  the  children's  own,  provided  they  have 
really  set  their  hearts  on  having  a  garden. 

It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  ebb  tide  of  opportunity  has 
positively  been  reached  when  gardeners  are  reduced  to  "farm- 
ing it  "  on  top  of  concrete.  Thrifty  little  plots,  it  is  true,  have 
sometimes  been  so  constructed,  and  a  promoter  of  garden 
interests  would  not,  of  course,  discourage  even  these.  But 
with  such  handicaps  the  prospect  from  the  agricultural  stand- 
point is  hardly  good.  Nevertheless  it  is  claimed  that  the 
market  gardeners  in  the  environs  of  Paris,  famous  the  world 
over  for  their  skill,  could  successfully  grow  identical  crops 
above  an  asphalt  pavement.  This  is  news  to  cheer  any 
downcast  heart. 

As  soon  as  a  community  has  once  been  really  converted 
to  the  idea  of  children's  gardening,  however,  many  an  open 
lot  can  be  found  which  the  owners  will  gladly  turn  over,  at 
least  temporarily,  to  this  public  cause.  Instances  multiply  to 
show  how  frequently  in  the  outlying  sections  of  cities  and 
in  the  suburbs  vacant  land  has  been  gratuitously  offered  for 
school-gardening  purposes.  The  nearer  such  a  lot  lies  to  the 
school  building,  of  course,  the  better.  In  a  congested  city 
district  it  is  often  the  custom  to  get  permission  to  use  some 
tract  of  park  land.  The  disadvantages  of  distance  have  been 
largely  overcome  by  arranging  that  the  school  children  shall 
go  over  to  the  park  for  their  lessons,  during  the  last  half 
hour  of  a  session,  on  two  days  in  the  week.  In  a  park  there 
is  frequently  some  sort  of  shelter  near  at  hand,  where  chil- 
dren can  keep  their  tools. 


SITUATION  AND  SOIL  51 

One  garden  director  pictures  thus  the  transfer  of  her  classes 
from  schoolroom  to  garden  :  "  Twice  a  week  during  the  plant- 
ing, cultivating,  and  harvesting  seasons,  two  processions,  boys 
and  girls,  of  fifty  children  each,  can  be  seen  marching,  two 
by  two,  through  the  streets  of  the  West  End  to  their  gardens. 
Over  their  shoulders,  like  a  soldier's  bayonet,  are  carried  those 
worthier  weapons — the  tools  by  which  human  society  has  built 
its  fabric  —  the  hoe  and  the  rake."  x 

A  somewhat  striking  example  of  what  may  be  done  with  a 
ragged  bit  of  city  land  is  worth  picturing  in  detail :  This  par- 
ticular plot  adjoined  a  school  building  situated  in  such  a  closely 
settled  section  that  the  only  free  space  belonging  to  it  was  an 
irregular  polygon  squeezed  into  the  space  left  by  two  brick 
buildings.  Here  the  sunshine  crept  in  during  only  a  very  few 
hours  each  day,  so  that  everybody  called  it  folly  to  undertake 
gardening  against  such  heavy  odds.  Notwithstanding  the 
heavy  handicaps,  however,  a  garden  was  finally  laid  out ;  and, 
curiously  enough,  as  time  went  on  this  little  plot  became  an 
inspiration  to  numbers  of  young  gardeners  throughout  the  city. 
The  ingenious  planning,  the  good  judgment  in  selecting  the 
right  plants,  and  the  discrimination  shown  in  massing  against 
the  fence  a  few  tall  and  brilliant  flowers  made  the  place 
unique.  One  would  hardly  believe  how  many  visitors  from 
far  and  near  were  attracted  by  this  obscure  little  corner. 

They  were  well  repaid  for  their  journey,  too,  they  said, 
by  a  glimpse  of  the  joyous  children  absorbed  in  work,  and 
by  the  quite  remarkable  fruits  of  their  industry.  But  by  far 
the  most  gratifying  result  of  this  bit  of  garden  was  the  love 
displayed  for  it  throughout  the  whole  neighborhood.  What 
eager  dark  faces  were  always  gazing  over  the  fence !  And 
what  words  of  approval  were  murmured  in  Italian  or  in 
softly  twisted  English  ! 

1  Report  of  Boston  School  Garden  Committee. 


52  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

The  question  is  often  raised  whether,  in  such  a  district  as 
has  just  been  described,  only  a  few  steps  away  from  a  crowded 
thoroughfare,  where  strangers  are  always  streaming  by,  a  gar- 
den can  be  kept  safe  from  intruders.  The  answer  is  that, 
when  properly  organized,  the  young  gardeners  and  their  fami- 
lies are  rightly  considered  a  garden's  stoutest  defenders.  The 
children's  protective  methods  are  sometimes  very  ingenious. 
In  one  instance  at  harvest  time  the  garden  was  continually 
visited  by  loafers  whom  the  gardeners  were  too  young  to  get 
the  best  of,  so  they  kept  a  camera  in  an  adjoining  house 
and  photographed  the  trespassers. 

It  is  well  known  that  ownership  in  even  a  tiny  garden 
arouses  in  the  children  of  a  community  a  true  respect  for 
property  hitherto  una wakened.  Here,  very  likely  for  the  first 
time  in  their  lives,  youngsters  see  things  from  the  angle  of 
the  owner.  In  concrete  terms,  as  soon  as  a  child  raises  a 
melon  and  has  that  melon  stolen,  he  recognizes  the  enormity 
of  theft.  This  is  not  mere  school-gardening  sentiment ; 
every  grown  person  who  has  had  experience  in  this  matter 
says  exactly  the  same  thing.  Yet  granting  that  a  change  of 
heart  may  be  accomplished  through  the  influence  of  school 
gardening,  only  an  old  fogy  will  expect  these  conversions  to  be 
instantaneous.  Few  persons,  moreover,  except  practical  school 
gardeners,  realize  how  many  disasters  can  befall  a  garden, 
wholly  apart  from  any  deliberate  mischief.  A  scrimmage  for 
a  stray  ball  is  enough  to  spoil  a  whole  spring  planting ;  and 
as  for  the  moral  natures  of  cats  and  dogs,  these  still  remain 
so  unregenerate  as  not  to  hinder  them  from  demolishing  a 
thriving  little  farm  in  a  brief  quarter  of  an  hour.  One  child 
voices  his  trials  thus  plaintively  in  his  garden  diary :  "  Every 
seed  I  have  in  the  world  is  at  the  mercy  of  a  dog."  The 
subject  of  fencing  is  bound  to  perplex  some  gardeners.  A 
fence  or  no  fence  is  the  question  ?  This  will  depend  largely 


SITUATION  AND  SOIL  53 

upon  local  conditions.  A  fence  often  seems  a  needless  ex- 
pense, and  in  some  neighborhoods  it  certainly  is.  Its  being 
regarded  as  a  necessity  would,  certainly  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, imply  a  lack  of  strong  neighborly  feeling.  Still  in 
some  sections,  where  there  is  much  idling  on  the  part  of  stran- 
gers, or  where  animals  run  loose,  or  again  where  the  garden 
adjoins  a  lively  playground,  it  is  clear  that  a  fence  may  prove 
true  economy. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  of  the  best  examples  of  neighborly 
cooperation  that  has  ever  been  observed  by  the  writer  was 
seen  (of  all  places  in  the  world  !)  in  New  York  City.  The  gar- 
den was  a  vacant-lot  experiment.1  Two  young  fellows  in  their 
teens  took  complete  charge,  and  sold  the  fresh  vegetables 
to  neighbors  who  came  to  buy.  Glancing  at  what  was  but 
an  apology  for  a  board  fence,  the  visitor  led  up  to  the  sub- 
ject of  trespassing,  prepared  for  tales  of  woe.  The  dialogue 
went  as  follows  : 

"  But  are  n't  you  bothered  by  meddlers,  not  to  say  thieves?" 

"  Oh,  no." 

"  But  this  fence  of  yours  can't  do  you  much  good." 

"  Well,  you  see,  so  many  like  to  come  in  that  I  took  it 
down  in  some  places  myself  so  that  folks  could  get  in  easier." 
Is  it  any  wonder  that  this  garden  was  a  success  ? 

And  yet  if  a  fence  is  required  for  protection,  then  by  all 
means  put  up  one  that  will  really  protect.  A  fence  five  or 
even  six  feet  tall,  as  for  a  tennis  court,  is  not  likely  to  be  too 
high.  In  that  case  the  wire  netting  should  be  strong,  firm, 
and  of  fine  mesh  so  that  animals  cannot  sneak  through.  Of 
course  it  must  not  shut  out  sunshine  or  a  view  of  all  the  in- 
teresting happenings  within.  Where  no  such  fence  is  needed, 
the  garden  can  be  prettily  inclosed  by  a  flowering  hedge  or 
by  a  low  wall  covered  with  vines. 

1  Started  by  Bolton  Hall. 


54  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

The  garden  having  thus  been  properly  inclosed,  the  next 
consideration  will  be  that  of  soil.  Just  as  no  site  is  hopeless, 
so  no  soil  is  beyond  reclaim.  And  yet  one  must  not  assume 
from  this  remark  that  good  earth  is  not  quite  as  necessary  as 
a  good  location.  The  difference  is  that  if  the  soil  does  not 
come  up  to  the  required  standard,  it  can  be  made  to  order. 

Portable  soil  is  a  term  that  explains  itself.  It  appears  that 
for  some  years  the  small  gardeners  near  Paris  have  stipulated 
in  their  renting  contracts  that  when  they  quit  their  tenancy 
they  may  carry  away  the  soil  down  to  a  certain  depth.  A 
recognized  expert  says  quite  truly,  "  Instead  of  searching  for 
soil,  we  are  learning  how  to  make  it."  In  city  gardens,  in- 
deed, the  necessity  of  making  the  soil  is  virtually  a  foregone 
conclusion. 

But  whether  the  garden  is  in  town  or  country,  if  it  has  any 
soil  worth  the  name,  the  first  step  is  to  examine  the  earth 
carefully  and  then  undertake  to  supply  what  it  lacks.  The 
way  is  to  take  up  a  handful  here  and  there,  in  order  that  all 
parts  of  the  land  shall  be  fairly  represented,  then  bring  the 
samples  indoors  so  as  to  examine  them  thoroughly  and  to 
determine  whether  the  ingredients  are  chiefly  sand,  clay,  or 
loam.  That  this  is  a  practical  method  is  indicated  by  one 
of  the  recent  devices  at  the  Iowa  experiment  station.  It  is 
what  is  known  as  a  soil  sampler,  something  on  the  plan  of  an 
apple  corer,  by  means  of  which  a  solid  core  of  soil,  three 
inches  in  diameter  and  of  any  depth  up  to  fifteen  inches,  can 
be  taken  out. 

The  school  gardener  will  usually  like  to  go  on  and  make 
a  few  simple  tests.1  Just  an  ordinary  magnifying  glass  will 
reveal  something  of  the  character  of  these  grains  of  earth. 
For  one  thing,  it  will  show  what  a  surprising  amount  of  water 
is  contained  in  one  crumb  of  earth.  Even  when  soil  looks 

1  Public  School  Agriculture,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 


SITUATION  AND  SOIL  55 

parched,  the  experienced  gardener  knows  that  it  holds  a 
quantity  of  what  is  called  film  water.  On  heating  a  little  of 
the  earth  in  a  test  tube,  the  glass  becomes  lined  with  tiny 
droplets  that  have  been  driven  off  from  the  apparently  dry 
earth.  To  verify  one's  conclusions  and  to  get  further  advice, 
a  sample  may  be  sent  for  analysis  to  the  state  experiment 
station.  Owing  to  the  small  quantity  under-  inspection,  how- 
ever, this  method  often  fails  to  give  satisfactory  results. 

Another  matter  for  consideration  is  to  what  extent  various 
soils  retain  the  rain.  For  testing  this  some  simple  scheme 
can  be  devised  to  show  at  what  rate  water  will  percolate 
through  the  different  materials.  A  good  way  is  to  set  up  sev- 
eral lamp  chimneys,  putting  a  sample  of  earth  in  each,  noting 
how  the  different  samples  behave  when  watered.  A  sandy 
soil,  it  will  be  seen,  allows  the  water  to  filter  through  in  almost 
no  time.  A  clay  soil,  on  the  contrary,  drains  very  slowly,  some- 
times scarcely  at  all.  Picture  this  on  a  grand  scale  and  you 
have  before  you  exactly  what  happens  to  the  rainfall  on  a 
farm.  In  the  first  case  the  sandy  earth  would  be  left  in  a 
chronic  state  of  drought,  while  in  the  second  the  water  would 
settle  in  puddles.  To  take  "  any  old  soil  "  and  mix  into  it 
the  ingredients  necessary  to  make  it  fit  for  all-round  garden 
purposes  requires  good  sense  and  no  little  skill.  Of  course, 
where  there  is  really  no  true  soil  foundation,  but  only  a  waste 
of  bricks  and  rubbish,  the  problem  is  even  more  difficult,  since 
in  that  case  a  garden  is  not  merely  made  but  built.  In  the 
case,  too,  of  hopelessly  rough  land  the  stumps  and  stones 
will  first  have  to  be  removed,  perhaps  by  blasting.  After- 
wards the  humps  and  hollows  can  be  leveled  by  spreading 
on  a  plentiful  supply  of  loam,  hauled  by  the  cartload. 

The  item  of  loam  in  the  expense  book  need  not  be  so 
very  great.  Indeed,  for  school  gardens  enough  loam  of  suffi- 
cient richness  may  usually  be  obtained  free  of  charge  from 


56  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

some  out-of-the-way  corner  of  the  park.  On  the  whole,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  more  substantial  the  filling  the  better 
the  crops,  since  some  roots  strike  deep.  The  course  that  has 
just  been  suggested  is  the  one  most  commonly  followed  in 
dealing  with  the  "  made  land  "  in  cities,  where  the  ground 
consists  mostly  of  gravel,  ashes,  and  tin  cans.  A  girl  from 
the  Winthrop  School  writes  naTvely,  "  When  we  were  dig- 
ging we  found  many  curious  things.  There  were  stones, 
worms,  broken  glass,  and  bricks." 

The  question  of  enrichment  —  what  and  how  much  —  will 
nowadays  accept  nothing  short  of  a  scientific  answer.  A 
thorough  knowledge  of  what  substances  to  use,  and  how  to 
use  them,  is  to-day  a  necessary  part  of  a  farmer's  equipment. 
He  must  at  all  costs  keep  up  with  the  new  methods  that  are 
being  introduced  every  year.  Sometimes  our  young  gardeners 
will  begin  by  verifying  some  of  the  commonly  accepted  rules 
about  fertilizers  ;  then  they  will  be  enticed  to  work  out  experi- 
ments wholly  their  own.  Practical  knowledge'  is  gained  by 
watching  the  effects  of  different  sorts  of  fertilizers  on  selected 
plants  arranged  in  separate  boxes.  Among  the  commonest 
samples  are  to  be  found  such  stand-bys  as  nitrate  of  soda,  acid 
phosphate,  muriate  of  potash,  and  some  forms  of  "  complete 
fertilizer,"  as  it  is  called,  not  omitting  samples  of  barnyard 
manure.  Other  samples  then  can  be  tried  whose  effects  are 
less  familiar. 

There  are  all  sorts  of  clever  ways  of  applying  fertilizers. 
What  gardeners  call  a  "  quick  start,"  for  instance,  is  secured 
by  making  a  somewhat  deeper  furrow  than  usual,  scattering 
in  some  fertilizer,  then  sprinkling  on  top  a  light  layer  of  earth 
before  sowing  the  seed.  But  it  must  be  emphasized  that  by 
far  the  most  effective,  as  well  as  the  most  commonly  used  all- 
round  fertilizer,  is  well-rotted  barnyard  manure.  ' '  Well-rotted 
means  that  decomposition  has  been  going  on  for  at  least  a 


SITUATION  AND  SOIL  57 

year.  As  to  quantity,  roughly  speaking  a  cord  of  this  manure 
will  .be  required  for  a  field  seventy-five  feet  square.  Livery- 
stable  manure  is  of  much  less  value,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  contains  a  large  proportion  of  straw.  This  very  objection, 
however,  works  to  the  advantage  of  land  wherever  a  too 
compact  soil  needs  to  be  lightened.  A  clay  soil,  for  example, 
calls  for  some  sort  of  filling  to  make  it  porous.  Wood  ashes, 
for  the  sake  of  the  potash  it  contains,  is  very  valuable.  Twenty 
cents  is  not  an  unusual  price  for  a  bushel,  so  that  every  hand- 
ful should  be  saved.  Coal  ashes  contains,  of  course,  no  plant 
food,  but  it  is  in  some  cases  used  to  improve  the  texture  of 
soil.  Pigeon  and  hen  guano  make  desirable  fertilizers  where 
a  highly  concentrated  form  is  wanted.  Some  give  these 
highest  praise.  Applying  fertilizers  should  always  be  done 
cautiously.  Of  many  a  once-promising  grassplot  it  can  all 
too  truly  be  said,  "  A  burnt  lawn  dreads  the  fertilizer."  This 
is  especially  true  of  prepared  dressings,  for  they  are  highly 
concentrated.  Therefore  never  allow  a  particle  to  touch 
any  part  of  a  seed  or  plant.  Guano  is  said  to  be  the  one 
exception. 

In  cities,  street  sweepings  play  an  important  part  in  enrich- 
ing land.  They  may  nearly  always  be  delivered  by  the  street 
department  for  the  asking.  The  farmer  did  not  exaggerate 
when  he  said  :  "  I  saw  a  man  dumping  a  load  of  street  sweep- 
ings into  a  vacant  lot.  It  would  have  been  less  wasteful  to 
have  dumped  a  bushel  of  potatoes  into  the  hole." 

Manure  and  artificial  fertilizers  are  both  expensive  ways 
of  restoring  the  food  elements  to  the  soil.  This  accounts 
for  the  starved  condition  of  many  a  worn-out  farm  whose 
owner  believed  he  was  too  poor  to  properly  feed  his  land. 
But  while  he  has  seemingly  been  getting  something  for 
nothing,  his  farm  has  been  steadily  running  down.  This  is 
called  skimming  the  land. 


58  GARDENS  AND   THEIR   MEANING 

A  recent  writer  gives  such  a  person  no  quarter.  He  says  : 
"  The  individual  who  deliberately  fails  to  return  to  the  soil  its 
fair  share  of  the  product  abuses  nature,  cheats  and  degrades 
himself,  robs  his  children,  defrauds  the  future,  and  is  not  an 
intelligent,  patriotic  citizen." 

It  is  a  blessing  that  new  and  more  economical  means  of 
fertilizing  have  supplanted  the  old.  The  three  most  valuable 
chemical  elements  supplied  by  fertilizers  are  potash,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  nitrogen.  Nitrogen,  the  most  important  ele- 
ment in  manure,  happens  to  be  the  most  costly  of  the  three. 

Until  recently  it  was  believed  that  green  plants  could 
under  no  circumstances  feed  on  free  nitrogen,  but  that  they 
must  use  it  in  some  one  of  its  chemical  combinations.  This 
is  doubtless  true  of  most  green  plants.  It  has,  however,  been 
found  that  one  class  of  plants  is  able  to  collect  free  nitro- 
gen from  the  air  mixed  in  with  the  soil,  and  stores  this  in 
its  roots. 

These  legumes,  or  pod-bearing  plants,  including  the  clover, 
vetch,  and  pea,  as  well  as  alfalfa  and  soy  bean,  bear  little 
nodules,  like  warts,  upon  their  roots.  The  nodules  are  made 
up  of  a  lot  of  microscopic  plants,  or  bacteria,  ten  thousand 
or  so  to  the  square  inch.  The  free  nitrogen  in  the  air  supplies 
these  bacteria  with  food.  Besides  using  the  free  nitrogen  as 
food,  these  bacteria  store  it,  or  "  fix  "  it,  as  the  term  is,  so  that 
later  the  whole  plant  may  get  the  benefit  of  it.  Moreover, 
through  the  plowing  under  of  nitrogen-fixing  plants  the  earth 
becomes  enriched  by  just  so  much  new  nitrogen.  To-day 
these  tiny  organisms  alone  are  saving  farmers  millions  of  dol- 
lars in  fertilizers.  In  some  cases,  however,  it  happens  that 
these  leguminous  plants  do  not  develop  nodules.  But  if 
nodules  are  lacking,  they  can  be  supplied,  so  scientists  have 
learned,  by  inoculation.  The  formula  for  inoculation  is  simple, 
so  that  the  process  has  frequently  been  carried  on  even  by 


SITUATION  AND  SOIL  59 

school  children.    Some  boys1  gave  an  account  of  their  inter- 
esting work  in  the  following  words  : 

We  wanted  to  grow  a  patch  of  cowpeas.  We  sent  to  the  laboratory 
and  secured  a  small  packet  of  sterilized  cotton  fiber  upon  which  nitrogen 
bacteria  were  growing.  We  received,  besides,  two  little  packages  of  chem- 
icals. We  were  told  to  dissolve  one  of  these  in  a  bucket  of  water  and 
then  drop  in  the  cotton  containing  the  organisms.  The  next  morning 
we  mixed  in  the  second  chemical.  By  simple  division,  the  bacteria  grew 
so  numerous  as  to  make  the  water  milky.  This  preparation  was  then 
sprinkled  on  the  seed  just  before  planting.  As  the  roots  sprout,  the 
bacteria  find  their  way  to  them.  They  at  once  begin  taking  in  and 
storing  up  the  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere. 

Many  such  experiments  are  recorded.2  A  common,  but 
convincing  test  is  to  plant  two  strips  with  peas,  treating  one 
with  fertilizer  and  the  other  without.  To  quote  one  out  of 
many  actual  records,  "  The  inoculated  seed  in  the  first  row 
did  as  well  without  fertilizers  of  any  kind  as  the  uninoculated 
seed  did  in  the  second  row,  loaded  as  it  was  with  fertilizers 
at  the  rate  of  800  pounds  of  phosphate." 

On  the  principle  that  a  pound  saved  is  a  pound  gained,  no 
careful  gardener  will  underestimate  the  value  of  his  compost 
heap.  A  compost  heap  provides  for  the  saving  of  every 
scrap  of  material  which  can  by  hook  or  by  crook  be  turned 
into  plant  food.  And  so  in  the  autumn  all  old  stalks  and 
withered  leaves,  in  short  everything  that  will  in  time  make 
soil,  should  be  raked  into  a  pile  and  given  a  chance  to  decay. 
To  hasten  disintegration  it  is  well  to  dampen  it  from  time  to 
time,  covering  it  over  with  boards  or  with  a  barrel  without  a 
head,  so  that  it  will  not  look  unsightly.  In  fact,  screened  with 
vines,  this  can  even  be  made  into  an  attractive  corner.  After 
the  pile  has  been  decomposing  for  several  months,  mix  with 

1  In  Miss  Mailman's  class,  Rice  School. 

2  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  A'o,  214. 


6o 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


it  some  animal  manure  and  spade  it  into  the  ground  ;  this 
makes  admirable  fertilizer.  Beware,  however,  of  just  one  thing : 
do  not  spade  in  the  seeds  that  remain  hanging  on  old,  dry 
weed  stalks.  This  would  bring  a  harvest  of  troubles  indeed. 
Instead,  kindle  a  bonfire  of  all  such  weeds  and  in  good  time 
stir  in  the  ashes.  Better  still,  make  a  large  scrap  basket  of 


ALABAMA'S  FUTURE  FARMERS1 

stout  wire  netting.     Put  it  in  an  out-of-the-way  place  and, 
when  full,  set  fire  to  it  without  removing  the  scraps. 

Mr.  Gladstone  thoroughly  understood  garden  economies. 
One  day  as  he  was  strolling  in  his  garden,  so  a  visitor  relates, 
there  fluttered  across  the  beds  a  scrap  of  paper.  He  caught 
it  adroitly  with  the  tip  of  his  cane  and,  pressing  it  into  the 
earth,  scraped  the  soil  well  over  it.  Such  a  simple  act  illus- 
trates the  instinct  of  the  true  gardener. 

1  These  lads  have  made  an  expedition  to  the  woods  to  get  leaf  mold 
for  their  garden. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PLOTTING  AND  PLANNING 

Laying  out  grounds,  as  it  is  called,  may  be  considered  as  a  liberal  art,  in 
some  sort  like  poetry  and  painting,  and  its  object,  like  that  of  all  the  liberal 
arts,  is  or  ought  to  be  to  move  the  affections  under  the  control  of  good 
sense.  If  this  be  so  when  we  are  merely  putting  together  words  or  colors, 
how  much  more  ought  the  feeling  to  prevail  when  we  are  in  the  midst  of 
the  realities  of  things.  —  WORDSWORTH 

What  the  main  garden  shall  stand  for  and  what  space  shall 
be  devoted  to  side  issues  will  be  the  all-absorbing  question 
as  soon  as  a  site  is  chosen.  Up  to  this  time  imagination  will 
have  set  no  limit  to  the  dazzling  possibilities  conjured  up  by 
a  brotherhood  of  young  Aladdins.  They  will,  however,  be  only 
too  glad  to  exchange  the  lamp  of  their  imaginings  for  some 
real  proof  of  skill  and  strength.  The  first  test  given  them 
(and  one  upon  which  more  depends  than  they  realize)  consists 
in  fixing  the  garden's  boundaries  according  to  precise  and 
carefully  considered  measurements.  In  deciding  what  these 
lines  shall  inclose,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  these  days 
of  intensive  gardening  a  trained  agricultural  conscience  will 
not  allow  a  scrap  of  the  inclosure  to  go  to  waste.  Far  better, 
therefore,  for  the  student  of  modern  methods  to  begin  by 
tilling  too  little  land  than  too  much.  One  needs  only  to  read 
agricultural  bulletins  to  be  convinced  that  what  really  counts 
is  the  quality  and  the  abundance  6f  a  yield  in  its  relation  to 
a  specific  area,  large  or  small.  An  expert,  for  instance,  scores 
not  because  he  can  harvest  a  certain  amount  of  corn,  but  be- 
cause he  has  discovered  a  way  to  make  two  ears  of  corn 

61 


62  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

grow  to-day  on  the  spot  where  one  grew  yesterday.  Feats 
like  this  (for  feats  they  truly  are)  stand  for  something  greater 
than  mere  individual  triumphs.  In  so  far  as  these  dis- 
coveries benefit  the  world,  they  are  justly  valued  as  forms 
of  high  social  service,  and  they  win  distinction  accordingly. 

All  other  schemes  come  to  a  standstill  while  the  little  farm 
is  being  correctly  staked,  the  survey  recorded,  and  a  map 
drawn  to  scale,  giving  each  detail,  the  points  of  the  compass 
included.  Now  is  the  time  when  slow  and  steady  wins  the 
race,  for  not  only  must  the  measurements  be  taken  deliber- 
ately, but  they  must  be  verified  many  times  over,  and  from 
a  number  of  different  starting  points.  In  the  lexicon  of  the 
young  surveyor  there  is  no  such  word  as  haste.  At  this  stage 
one  careless  slip  has  more  than  once  been  the  undoing  of  a 
beautiful  plan. 

The  task  of  surveying  a  home  garden,  even  though  it 
should  be  divided  into  plots,  is  of  course  comparatively  slight ; 
but  when  a  whole  class  —  including  the  quick  and  the  slow, 
the  lame  and  the  lazy  —  undertakes  to  plot  a  school  garden 
in  concert,  each  doing  his  share,  surveying  becomes  quite  a 
different  story.  This  is  indeed  exploration. 

The  children  set  out  together  like  a  band  of  pilgrims.  Now 
any  such  company,  starting  on  a  quest,  would  surely  expect, 
sometime  in  their  course,  to  see  rising  up  before  them  the  hill 
Difficulty.  Indeed,  they  would  be  honestly  disappointed  to  find 
the  experimental  life  on  too  "  dead-easy  "  a  level.  But  some- 
how they  do  not  look  for  this  hill  at  the  very  start-off.  Never- 
theless, —  there  is  no  disguising  the  fact,  —  it  is  looming  up 
already  in  the  path  of  our  young  friends  in  the  shape  of  a  prob- 
lem in  plotting.  To-day,  as  of  old,  there  is  a  choice  of  ways. 
One  way  curves  conveniently  around  its  base ;  this  means 
that  older  persons  may  do  all  or  most  of  the  thinking,  — 
a  responsibility  which,  out  of  a  mistaken  sense  of  kindness, 


PLOTTING  AND  PLANNING  63 

they  are  often  only  too  ready  to  assume.  The  other  is  the 
narrow  way  that  leads  over  the  crest ;  and  this,  if  followed, 
means  that  the  children  gallantly  do  this  work  themselves. 
Well  for  them  if  they  decide  upon  this  latter  path,  for  the 
exercise  of  clambering  up  such  hills  is  in  itself  the  best  part 
of  a  liberal  education.  Moreover,  the  ravines  and  precipices 
which  look  so  formidable  to  one  lonely  wayfarer  can  be  con- 
quered right  merrily  if  the  pilgrims  are  companioned  by  a 
common  cause  which  they  have  entered  into  with  all  their 
hearts.  For  in  the  plotting  of  a  garden  all  the  qualities  which 
the  youngsters  possess  in  common,  such  as  mathematical 
accuracy,  initiative,  patience,  and  good  humor,  are  called  out 
by  the  occasion  and  shared  by  all.  Lucky  children  are  they 
who,  before  their  fingers  grow  clumsy,  have  a  chance  to  acquire 
manual  skill,  and  who,  before  their  dispositions  get  cranky, 
can  practice  social  combinations. 

If  at  this  crisis  mathematics  makes  for  good  gardening,  it 
is  just  as  sure  that  gardening  makes  for  good  mathematics. 
For  it  has  been  found  that  by  the  time  the  area,  with  all  its 
jogs  and  irregularities,  has  been  worked  out,  first  on  the  land 
itself  and  then  on  paper,  the  width  of  the  paths  settled,  and 
the  beds  outlined,  not  to  enumerate  all  the  details  of  second- 
ary importance,  the  "art  of  computation"  and  the  "science 
of  numbers  "  —in  the  language  of  the  ancient  textbooks  — 
will  have  lost  all  resemblance  to  a  certain  unpleasant  specter  of 
old,  and  will  appear  in  friendliest  guise  as  a  flesh-and-blood 
reality.  Experience,  moreover,  shows  that  no  stimulus,  how- 
ever artfully  contrived,  will  whip  a  lagging  scholar  at  so  smart 
a  gait  along  the  road  to  quick  and  accurate  figuring  as  a  gen- 
uine obligation  to  his  self-elected  work  and  to  his  fellows. 

The  load  of  measuring  may  be  lightened  according  to  the 
means  employed.  To  begin  with,  gardeners  are  advised  to 
invest  in  a  surveyor's  tape.  A  garden  line  will  be  required 


64 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR   MEANING 


besides  ;  in  other  words,  a  stout  cord  that  will  not  stretch.  If 
possible,  get  one  long  enough  to  extend  the  entire  side  of  the 
lot,  then  fasten  an  iron  hammock  ring  at  each  end  to  prevent 
the  line  from  slipping  or  by  chance  from  being  twitched  out  of 
one's  grasp,  —  for  these  provoking  little  incidents  sometimes 


LINES   THAT    DO    NOT    SLIP 

do  happen.  The  rings  will  readily  slip  over  two  corner  stakes 
and  hold  the  line  steady  while  intermediate  measurements 
are  being  taken.  They  can  also  be  used  to  hang  up  the  line 
by,  when  these  measuring  days  are  happily  over.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  knot  or  otherwise  mark-  on  the  cord  certain  definite 
distances,  such  as  the  width  of  paths  and  beds,  so  that  these 
may  be  located  with  the  least  possible  trouble. 


PLOTTING  AND   PLANNING  65 

Time- and  trouble-saving  devices  innumerable  will  be  sug- 
gested by  inventive  boys  and  girls,  who  will  now  have  their 
special  innings.  Some  of  these  devices,  to  be  sure,  seem 
rather  trivial,  especially  before  they  have  been  tested  ;  but  all 
may  well  be  given  a  trial.  One  would  hardly  realize,  for  in- 
stance, how  cleverly  a  little  clothespin  will  lend  its  aid ;  as 
an  article  for  holding  strings  in  place  it  certainly  takes  the 
lead,  pushing  as  it  does  so  firmly  and  neatly  into  the  earth. 

When  the  garden  plan  is  finished,  there  will  doubtless  be 
several  copies  of  it  made.  One  will  be  kept  "  for  best "  and  will 
be  posted  on  some  convenient  wall  for  reference.  Lettered 
plainly,  it  will  reveal  at  a  glance  many  interesting  things ;  it 
will  tell  what  proportion  of  the  land  is  to  be  given  over  to 
general  kitchen-garden  purposes,  what  to  the  experimental 
beds,  what  to  a  little  nursery,  to  small  fruits,  to  ornamental 
shrubbery,  flower  plots,  and  borders.  In  the  case  of  a  small 
inclosure  that  is  expected  to  produce  a  variety  of  vegetables 
and  flowers,  some  of  which  can  get  along  with  less  sun  than 
others,  one  is  recommended  to  mark  out  quite  definitely  the 
areas  of  sun  and  shade  that  can  be  counted  upon.  These,  of 
course,  will  change  to  correspond  with  the  sun's  path  as  the 
weeks  go  by. 

The  place  of  honor,  however,  in  any  well-regulated  garden 
will  be  reserved  for  the  cold  frame,  since  within  it  there  will 
be  reared  hundreds  of  little  plantlings  with  which  to  stock  all 
the  rest  of  the  garden.  Spare  no  pains,  therefore,  in  choosing 
for  it  a  spot  that  combines  the  most  complete  shelter  with 
the  most  splendid  sun  exposure.  For  nowadays,  even  in  very 
modest  home  and  school  gardens,  the  cold  frame  is  very  prop- 
erly playing  a  leading  part,  and  every  day  its  value  is  being 
more  and  more  appreciated. 

Desirable  in  every  way  as  it  would  appear  to  work  out  the 
whole  plan  (this  being  in  accordance  with  the  advice  offered 


66  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

by  the  best  gardeners),  too  long  a  look  ahead  must  not  be 
expected  of  children,  for  experience  has  not  yet  taught  them 
foresight.  As  a  rule  they  are  only  interested  in  the  details  of 
the  near  future.  And  yet  just  such  work  as  this  should  help 
them  to  become  excellent  planners.  On  every  occasion  they 
should  be  encouraged  to  view  their  grounds  in  imagination 
from  this  angle  or  from  that,  from  a  window  or  a  flight  of 
steps.  Experienced  gardeners,  when  arranging  flower  beds, 
picture  them  as  vividly  as  possible  during  the  procession  of 
months,  painting  them  in  their  true  colors  and  foreseeing 
just  where  gaps  are  likely  to  be  left  when  certain  plants  stop 
blooming.  The  best  places  for  the  permanent  shrubs  and  vines, 
whose  beauty  will  often  consist  of  berries  and  fruit  as  well  as 
blossoms,  like  the  bittersweet  and  the  barberry,  will,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  decided  now,  though  it  is  not  probable  that  all 
will  be  set  out  the  first  year,  nor  is  this  desirable. 

According  to  one  of  his  friends,  Saint-Gaudens  had  a 
delightfully  simple  method  for  the  effective  laying  out  of 
flower  beds.  He  would  lay  down  laths  to  indicate  where  the 
paths  should  be,  then  move  them  nearer  together  or  farther 
apart  to  widen  or  narrow  the  paths  until  the  *beds  "  looked 
right."  Carrying  this  practical  method  a  bit  farther,  some 
stick  up  bits  of  brush  where  shrubs  are  to  be.  This  is,  as  it 
were,  "trying  on  the  garden's  dress."1  It  certainly  helps 
wonderfully  in  training  the  garden  imagination. 

While  children  show  a  good  deal  of  independence  in  their 
choice  of  plants,  they  constantly  ask  the  opinion  of  grown 
people,  particularly  in  regard  to  flower  beds ;  and  their  eager 
questions  open  ways  truly  to  befriend  them  by  a  few  wise 
hints,  for  there  are  some  underlying  principles  in  landscape 
gardening  which  everybody  should  know,  and  which  may  well 
be  learned  early.  Some  of  them  are  embodied  in  the  following 

1  Miss  Frances  Duncan. 


PLOTTING  AND   PLANNING 


67 


simple  rules :  When  in  doubt,  follow  nature.  Avoid,  as  a  rule, 
planting  flowers  in  stiff  rows,  unless,  of  course,  some  special 
occasion  may  require  it.  Avoid  indulging  in  fanciful  effects 
and  geometrical  or  picture-puzzle  shapes ;  lend  a  willing  ear 
to  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  whose  advice  is  as  timely  to-day  as  it 
was  three  hundred  years  or  more  ago,  when  first  it  was  written. 


KEEP    EACH   VARIETY    BY    ITSELF 


you 


"As  for  the  making  of  knots  or  figures,"  quoth  he, 
may  see  as  good  sights  many  times  in  tarts." 

To  venture  upon  one  or  two  more  hints :  Every  path  should 
lead  somewhere ;  it  should  not  wind  without  good  cause.  Tall 
plants  will  be  most  effective  if  placed  behind  low  ones,  not 
mingled  with  them.  Keep  each  variety  by  itself;  mass,  do  not 
mix.  Blue  and  yellow  flowers  are  cheerful  and  sunshiny.  Use 
many  white  flowers  near  the  gay-colored  ones;  this  brings 
out  the  beauty  of  both.  Avoid  monotony  by  having  plenty  of 
green ;  therefore  protect  the  foliage  of  plants  from  insects  as 


68 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


carefully  as  you  do  the  flowers.  Plan,  as  has  already  been  said, 
for  a  succession  of  bloom  extending  from  May  to  late  October. 
Any  one  who  will  select  his  plants  with  this  in  mind  can  have 
a  garden  gay  with  blossoms  the  whole  season  long.  Above 
all,  remember  that  a  fussy  garden  can  never  be  beautiful. 


STRAIGHT    IS    THE    LINE    OF    BEAUTY 

The  charm  of  a  flower  bed,  as  we  probably  agree,  depends 
a  great  deal  upon  its  harmonious  arrangement.  The  vegetable 
garden,  on  the  contrary,  does  not  indulge  in  any  picturesque 
effects.  Its  beauty  lies  in  severe  simplicity  and  scrupulous 
care.  In  spite  of  copy-book  precepts  —  in  this  case  at  least  — 
straight  is  the  line  of  beauty.  This  will  never  be  better  dem- 
onstrated than  by  a  visit  to  some  flourishing  market  garden. 


PLOTTING  AND   PLANNING  69 

Nothing  is  more  exhilarating  on  a  bright  day  than  the  sight 
of  a  superb  market  garden  in  full  swing.  The  smell  of  the 
rich  earth,  the  orderly  furrows  sketched  in  living  green  upon 
the  black  soil,  seeking  with  one  accord  a  vanishing  point  in 
the  far  horizon,  and  the  unhurried  industry  of  this  complete 
little  world  where  each  man  is  bound  up  in  his  special  work, 
—  all  these  captivate  the  imagination.  To  crown  all  comes  the 
economic  test.  A  noble  harvest  of  foodstuffs  is  waiting  in 
bountiful  heaps,  to  be  delicately  packed  for  shipping  and  for 
the  city  market.  Inquiry  proves  beyond  question  that  the 
financial  status  of  such  an  industry  is  solid.  The  business  is 
organized  to  earn  every  possible  penny. 

It  is  remarkable  how  quickly  youngsters  catch  the  rhythm 
of  a  place  like  this.  Many  a  one  who  has  started  out  of  a 
morning  in  the  spirit  of  frolic  will  come  back  from  his  visit 
quite  sobered.  Whatever  else  may  have  been  accomplished, 
the  trip  will  not  be  likely  to  fail  in  giving  exactly  what  was 
expected  of  it  —  a  capital  idea  of  a  true  market  garden. 
Nevertheless,  to  hold  this  up  as  the  one  and  only  standard  of 
excellence  for  a  school  garden  would  of  course  be  a  mistake. 

It  is  plain  enough  that  if  this  point  were  overemphasized, 
the  miniature-farm  idea  might  lead  to  mere  superficial  imi- 
tation. This  would  ruin,  educationally,  the  promise  of  a  gar- 
den's best  work,  where  a  small  space  is  to  be  worked,  not  by 
one  dominant  mind  —  of  an  Olympian,  shall  we  say  ?  —  but 
by  many  minds  as  well  as  many  hands.  A  method  in  which 
there  are  few,  if  any,  difficulties  is  one  which  has  sometimes 
been  adopted  in  a  cooperative  garden  to  secure  a  farmlike 
basis  for  vegetable  growing  without  at  all  cramping  the  ambi- 
tions of  the  individual  planters.  First  divide  the  entire  space 
into  long  strips  four  or  five  feet  wide,  with  paths  of  not  less 
than  three  feet  between.  These  strips,  by  the  by,  should  prefer- 
ably run  north  and  south,  so  that  the  sun  will  fall  impartially 


70  GARDENS  AND  THEIR   MEANING 

on  both  sides  of  a  plant,  which  will  thus  attain  a  symmet- 
rical leafage.  This  bit  of  real  estate  can  then  be  subdivided 
into  "lots  to  suit,"  with  no  restrictions,  as  the  advertise- 
ments read,  so  long  as  it  is  controlled  by  the  workers  them- 
selves, divided  amicably  according  to  the  schemes  they  have 
in  mind.  Then  by  reducing,  as  far  as  possible,  the  number 
of  cross  paths,  we  can  economize  space,  and  the  artificial, 
checkerboard  effect  of  many  school  gardens,  which  is  quite 
unnecessary,  can  be  avoided.  Some  do  not  object  to  this 
patchy  and  wholly  individualistic  method  of  division  ;  other 
persons  do  object,  chiefly  because  it  neither  expresses  nor 
encourages  any  cooperative  association  on  the  part  of  the 
workers.  Indeed,  it  gives  quite  the  opposite  impression,  for 
it  copies  rather  the  rows  of  isolated  desks  in  a  classroom, 
so  suggestive  of  mental  and  spiritual  quarantine. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood,  however,  that  further  division 
of  the  land  for  some  real  purpose  is  in  any  way  objectionable. 
The  point  is  always  to  have  the  entire  planting  done  not  at 
the  bidding  of  some  grown-up  autocrat,  kindly  and  wise  though 
he  may  be,  but  by  the  mutual  agreement  of  the  workers. 
This  once  accomplished,  appearances  can  safely  take  care  of 
themselves. 

Suppose  the  strips  to  be  subdivided  into  various  sections ; 
then  each  individual  or  each  cooperating  group  of  children 
can  cultivate  one  or  more  of  these  sections  according  to  any 
basis  that  all  consider  fair.  Some  schemes  in  their  very  nature 
will  need  more  space  than  others,  some  less.  One  group  of 
workers  will  specialize  in  variations  of  the  cabbage  tribe,  — 
collards,  kohl-rabi,  cauliflower,  etc.  Another  group  will  watch 
the  effects  of  the  different  fertilizers.  Still  another  will  perhaps 
engage  in  the  business  of  flower  culture.  Whatever  specialty 
happens  to  be  seriously  chosen,  it  will  bring  in  its  train  plenty 
of  wholesome  education.  Who  shall  say  of  these  electives 


PLOTTING  AND   PLANNING  71 

that  one,  even  if  suggested  by  a  graybeard,  is  intrinsically 
better  than  another  ?  although  better  it  certainly  proves  for 
the  education  of  the  young  person  whose  heart  is  in  it. 

In  the  course  of  all  this  plan  making  and  unmaking,  it  is 
inevitable  that  some  false  gods  be  shattered.  City  children,  for 
example,  accustomed  all  their  lives  to  banked-up  flower  beds 
in  public  parks  and  gardens,  seem  possessed  to  perpetuate 
these  in  their  own  gardening.  They  are  not  even  content 
with  following  their  model  with  reasonable  zeal,  but  in  the 
process  of  path  making  they  will  be  seen  carefully  scooping 
the  earth  out  deeper  and  deeper,  enhancing,  as  they  firmly  be- 
lieve, this  beautiful  effect,  which  finally  becomes  grotesque,  if 
not  actually  gruesome  in  character.  In  a  park,  of  course,  this 
special  treatment  of  banking  the  earth  is  often  given  to  bulbs 
and  to  plants  that  have  been  nursed  in  hothouses  and  then 
transplanted  on  the  eve  of  blossoming  for  a  few  weeks'  dis- 
play. But  in  genuine,  everyday  gardening  there  is  nothing 
to  be  said  in  favor  of  such  mounds.  Pause  a  moment  and  you 
will  see  that  in  such  cases  the  water  is  drained  off  to  a  lower 
level  so  quickly  that  the  roots  are  sure  to  starve. 

So  far  we  have  been  discussing  the  matters  of  general  con- 
cern ;  the  time  has  now  come  to  talk  over  the  various  spe- 
cialties. These,  too,  concern  everybody,  but  not  all  to  the  same 
degree.  The  wide  difference  in  children's  personality  is  now 
brought  into  high  relief.  Students  of  a  certain  type,  for  in- 
stance, are  so  constituted  that  they  will  quite  contentedly  carry 
on  a  garden  plot  which  is  the  exact  counterpart  of  their  neigh- 
bor's. Perhaps  they  may  as  well  be  allowed  to  form  this  habit. 
By  some  teachers  no  special  obligation  to  such  natures  is 
recognized,  beyond  letting  them  jog  comfortably  along  the 
great  highways  that  others  have  trodden  smooth,  keeping 
constantly  at  their  heels,  however,  to  see  to  it  that  no  actually 
assigned  task  is  neglected.  It  seems  often  to  be  taken  for 


72  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

granted  that  a  large  proportion  of  pupils  are  predestined, 
into  whatever  calling  they  go,  for  the  mediocre,  not  to  say 
under-dog,  positions  in  life,  —  the  very  positions,  of  course, 
for  which  throngs  of  applicants  are  always  pushing.  In  the 
old  world  of  class  distinctions  this  question  would  probably 


THEIR   EXPERIMENT    PLOT 

be  quickly  disposed  of.  In  the  new  world,  and  especially  in 
the  new  education,  the  questioner  will  not  be  silenced.  It  is, 
in  truth,  constantly  being  asked  whether  every  little  spark  of 
initiative  is  not  capable  of  starting  a  very  good  bonfire,  if  not 
a  big  conflagration,  and  whether  a  puff  or  two,  well  timed, 
might  not  set  it  ablaze.  Our  attitude  all  depends  upon  whether 
we  intend  to  train  young  people  out  of  mediocrity  or  into  it. 


PLOTTING  AND  PLANNING  73 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  students  of  another  type,  in 
whose  veins  the  spirit  of  adventure  runs  high.  The  chance 
to  carry  on  an  experiment  plot  of  their  own  instantly  appeals 
to  them.  These  plots,  since  they  are  to  be  of  so  miscellaneous 
a  character,  may  for  convenience  be  placed  a  little  apart  from 
the  main  farm.  In  such  an  experimental  plot  some  pet  theory 
will  be  tested,  or  some  phenomenon  that  has  excited  curiosity 
will  be  hunted  down.  This  is  the  kind  of  work  that  calls  out 
the  power  of  leadership,  and  of  all  others  this  is  the  place  to 
encourage  those  who  have  the  smallest  germ  of  scientific 
interest. 

Some  unimaginative  person  may,  half  in  earnest,  call  these 
plots  space  set  apart  for  whims.  That  we  may  not  inadver- 
tently fall  into  this  error  ourselves,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  the  scientific  discoveries  which  constitute  the  vertebrae 
of  civilized  life  to-day  once  originated  in  what  appeared  to  be 
the  fruitless  chase  of  a  foolish  notion.  Certain  it  is  that 
excellent  people  grasp  this  truth  perfectly  in  theory,  only 
to  find  that  in  practice  it  slips  like  sand  through  their  fin- 
gers. This  is  more  than  likely  to  happen  when  they  are 
watching,  a  little  impatiently,  some  of  the  crude  but  sincere 
attempts  of  children,  and  want  to  hurry  them.  There  are 
plenty  of  teachers  who  will  testify  that  some  of  the  experi- 
ments which  at  first  struck  them  as  most  fantastic  are  the 
very  ones  from  which  a  class  in  the  end  derived  the  most 
solid  benefit.  The  following  extract  from  a  boy's  exercise 
book  will  give  a  slight  notion  of  the  attitude  of  some  seventh- 
grade  boys  toward  their  garden  experiments  : 

MY  PLAN  TO   RAISE  RICE 

The  way  to  raise  rice  is  to  have  a  swampy  place  and  a  warm  place. 
In  our  school  garden  we  had  no  swampy  place,  so  we  had  to  draw  plans 
of  how  to  keep  the  ground  swampy.  My  plan  was  to  dig  down  two  feet, 


74  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

put  boards  on  both  sides  and  bottom,  put  clay  in  the  cracks,  and  fill  it 
with  dirt  three  quarters  full  and  soak  it  with  water ;  then  plant  the  seeds 
and  water  it  twice  a  day. 

The  way  it  was  carried  out  in  the  garden,  we  dug  down  two  feet  and 
then  we  made  a  wall  of  stones  and  sidewalk  bricks.  We  then  filled  the 
cracks  with  clay.  We  mixed  some  clay  with  dirt  and  put  it  on  the  bottom. 
We  put  some  soil  on  top  and  then  planted  some  seeds,  etc. 

And  so  for  weeks,  in  perfect  seriousness,  the  record  of 
this  experiment  continues.  Of  course  no  crops  of  rice  were 
ever  harvested.  Silly,  then,  to  try.  Perhaps  ;  but  more  foolish 
it  would  have  been  to  discourage  the  growth  of  sturdy  peren- 
nials like  initiative  and  concentration,  particularly  when  these 
spring  up  so  spontaneously  and  are  content  to  flourish  in  a 
mudhole. 

The  plotting  of  our  garden  may  now  be  considered  finished  ; 
and  the  planning,  in  the  rough,  is  finished,  too.  Yet,  in 
a  sense,  planning  has  only  just  begun.  It  is,  in  truth,  never 
done.  The  fact  is,  the  best  kind  of  garden  at  home  or  school 
grows  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  a  living  organism.  Fed 
constantly  by  fresh  ideas,  it  keeps  building  new  tissue,  as  it 
were,  and  adapting  itself  to  new  needs  and  conditions.  It 
must,  for  it  is  in  the  hands  of  young  human  creatures  who 
are  growing  fast  themselves. 

Most  upsetting,  of  course,  such  changes  must  be  to  the 
mature  mind,  which  demands  not  dissolving  views,  each 
more  entrancing  than  the  last,  but  a  finished  picture  in 
March  of  what  is  to  be  realized  in  June.  If  exacted  by  some 
person  in  authority,  such  perfection,  however,  can  easily  be 
reached.  It  is  only  necessary  to  take  the  appropriate  course. 
This  consists  in  proceeding  very  much  as  a  real-estate  owner 
would  proceed  in  building  a  block  of  houses.  In  such  a  case 
it  is  expected  that  the  plans,  together  with  the  specifications, 
will  simply  be  passed  over  to  the  contractor. 


PLOTTING  AND   PLANNING  75 

And  yet,  much  as  we  may  scorn,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
tourist  who  cannot  deviate  a  hair  from  his  scheduled  trip,  on 
the  other  we  deplore  the  habit  of  aimless  wandering.  In 
gardening,  what  a  grown  person  is  for  is  not  to  personally 
conduct  the  trip,  but,  as  an  expert,  to  help  test  the  texture 
of  children's  plans,  and  to  find  out  whether  the  stuff  these 
are  made  of  will  stand  the  strain,  or  whether  it  will  fray 
and  pull. 

At  last,  when  all  the  mistakes  and  all  the  imperfections 
have  been  bravely  faced,  with  high  hope  everybody  looks 
forward  to  "  next  year."  And  sure  enough,  another  season 
comes  round,  opening  a  beautiful  new  page  on  which  little 
men  and  women  may  write. 


CHAPTER  V 
A  WORD   FOR  GOOD  TOOLS 

Through  cunning,  with  dibble,  rake,  mattock,  and  spade, 
By  line  and  by  level  trim  garden  is  made.  —  TUSSER 

When  the  children's  school  farm  in  New  York  City  was 
started,  the  children  were  equipped  with  just  one  tool — a  clam- 
shell. With  this  insignificant  weapon,  as  the  whole  school- 
gardening  world  knows,  they  made  a  splendid  attack.  But 
even  a  ten-year-old  child,  as  he  goes  on  improving,  wants  the 
right  tools.  He  wants  them  so  much  that  he  will  do  a  good 
deal  on  his  own  initiative  toward  getting  them.  So  in  the 
spring,  when  youngsters  begin  to  discuss  tools  with  the 
same  eagerness  as  they  do  bats  and  marbles  and  are  found 
poring  over  catalogues  away  past  bedtime,  it  is  the  moment 
for  a  grown-up  to  step  in  and  offer  his  experiences,  and  show 
them  how  to  make  their  pennies  go  farthest. 

When  enthusiasm  is  at  the  full,  one  teacher  makes  a  prac- 
tice of  inviting  his  class  to  visit  with  him  one  of  the  great 
agricultural  supply  houses.  Here  are  stacked  a  truly  bewil- 
dering assortment  of  implements  and  machines.  Young 
people  enter  a  new  world  ;  they  cannot  help  being  fascinated 
by  these  complicated  and  ingenious  inventions.  Of  course 
they  must  examine  all  the  articles  in  detail,  and  handle  every- 
thing, lingering  always  longest,  to  the  concern  of  the  teacher, 
over  tools  which  have  fine-cutting  edges.  The  obliging  dealer 
will  be  peppered  with  questions.  All  at  once  the  children 
begin  to  grasp  what  this  tremendous  industry  stands  for. 
They,  learn,  besides,  that  agricultural  machinery  constitutes 

76 


A  WORD   FOR  GOOD  TOOLS 


77 


one  of  the  chief  exports  from  our  country,  and  that  American 
implements  are  in  demand  the  world  over.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  exhibits  at  Paris,  in  1900,  was  a  collection  of  agri- 
cultural tools,  —  stepping  stones  of  progress  on  parade  they 
might  be  called,  —  arranged  in  chronological  order.  The 
curiously  archaic  forms  of  the  primitive  tools  led  off,  then 
'appeared  the  gradual  improvements  made  at  different  epochs, 


HANDS    MAKE    THE    BEST    ALL-ROUND   TOOLS 

until,  bringing  up  the  rear,  were  displayed  all  the  most  intri- 
cate modern  machines.  A  rapid  glance  revealed  the  complete 
history  of  agriculture  and  explained  its  enormous  leap  ahead, 
at  the  present  day,  by  the  help  of  machinery. 

Most  of  the  new  and  clever  devices  for  economizing  labor 
are  to  be  seen  in  actual  service  at  any  flourishing  market 
garden.  It  is  a  part  of  the  business  of  the  school  gardener 
to  understand  agriculture  in  all  its  giant  proportions,  and  to 
appreciate  appliances  and  what  they  stand  for.  It  is  also 


78  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

necessary  for  him  to  perform  skillfully  the  work  of  his  own 
small  domain  without  too  much  expense,  and  to  realize  that 
hands  are,  after  all,  about  the  best  all-round  tools. 

This  brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  all-important  question 
as  to  what  tools  are  positively  needed  in  a  school  garden,  and 
what  they  will  cost.  Some  of  the  articles  recommended  are 
so  simple  that  they  can  hardly  be  called  tools  except  by  cour- 
tesy ;  and  yet  the  list  has  been  found  to  meet  amply  all  de- 
mands of  everyday  planting.  According  to  the  use  to  which 
they  are  put,  there  may  be  said  to  be  three  generic  tools. 
These  are  the  plow,  the  harrow,  and  the  cultivator.  On 
small  grounds  the  spading  fork  answers  for  the  plow,  the 
rake  for  the  harrow,  and  the  hoe  for  the  cultivator ;  in  fact, 
eight  simple  tools  are  quite  enough  to  make  a  fairly  good 
outfit.  The  large  tools  selected  will  be  the  spade,  spading 
fork,  hoe,  and  rake ;  the  small  tools  will  be  the  trowel, 
excelsior  weeder,  a  heavy  iron  spoon  with  an  iron  handle, 
skewers,  and  wooden  labels.  The  labels  and  skewers  can 
be  whittled  out  by  beginners  in  woodworking.  Children  so 
occupied  will  be  doing  real  things  and  will  thoroughly  enjoy 
doing  them. 

For  general  use  in  the  garden  the  list  should  be  increased 
by  a  garden  hose,  a  few  watering  pots,  garden  lines,  and  a 
wheelbarrow.  The  large  tools  are  confined  almost  entirely  to 
the  work  of  preparation  ;  consequently  it  is  not  necessary  to 
have  one  tool  for  each  pupil.  To  have  a  scant  supply  of  small 
tools,  on  the  other  hand,  so  that  the  children  would  have  to 
await  their  turn,  would  be  false  economy.  In  a  garden  class 
nobody  should  be  idle  for  a  single  moment ;  this  might  well 
be  called  the  First  Law  of  the  Garden.  As  an  estimate  of 
what  tools,  if  properly  managed,  will  fully  answer  the  needs 
of  a  class  of  thirty,  the  following  list  is  proposed :  six  spades, 
twelve  trowels,  six  watering  pots,  six  spading  forks,  one  dozen 


A  WORD  FOR  GOOD  TOOLS  79 

hoes,  one  dozen  rakes,  and  for  each  pupil  a  weeder,  a  spoon, 
and  a  skewer.  The  small  kit  consisting  of  these  last  three 
articles  should  always  be  at  hand,  because  there  is  no  time 
during  the  entire  season  when  these  tools  will  not  be  needed 
for  keeping  the  land  cultivated  and  for  stirring  the  soil  around 
the  plants.  The  skewer  does  the  work  of  a  dibble  ;  the  trowel 
is  wanted  when  a  generous  supply  of  earth  is  to  be  kept 
around  the  roots,  and  can  be  deftly  applied  to  the  ground 
near  the  stalk  of  the  plant  without  disturbing  it  too  much. 
Of  course  other  tools  could  be  added,  like  the  spray  pump, 
which  would  be  very  desirable.  The  entire  cost  of  this  outfit 
will  come  well  within  thirty  dollars. 

On  the  same  basis  that  textbooks  and  stationery  are  sup- 
plied to  schools  for  indoor  studies,  this  modest  equipment 
should  be  furnished  for  the  outdoor  laboratory.  In  neighbor- 
hoods where  a  number  of  home  gardens  are  carried  on,  some 
of  the  more  expensive  tools  can  be  owned  in  partnership. 
It  will  be  found  that  cooperation  for  the  purchase  of  tools 
and  seeds,  as  well  as  for  the  disposal  of  produce,  is  for  the 
advantage  of  everybody. 

Beware  of  yielding  to  the  temptation  of  investing  in  cheap 
or  toy  tools.  They  are  very  attractive,  but  they  break  easily, 
and  such  an  outlay  of  money  is  simply  thrown  away ;  there- 
fore go  in  for  a  better  grade.  Strong,  honestly  made  tools,  if 
well  cared  for,  will  last  for  several  seasons.  Proper  care  of 
them  means  that  they  must  be  thoroughly  wiped  when  put 
away,  to  prevent  rust.  Every  now  and  then  they  should  be 
rubbed  up  with  a  cloth  dipped  in  kerosene.  A  gardener  is 
known  by  the  tools  he  keeps  ;  indeed,  any  true  gardener  hates 
badly  kept  tools.  He  will  take  pride,  too,  in  the  appearance 
of  his  tool  room  ;  to  preserve  good  order,  therefore,  shelves 
may  be  put  up  for  holding  the  smaller  articles,  while  the  large 
ones  hang  from  pegs  on  the  wall.  Some  schools  recommend 


80  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

cutting  a  number  in  the  handle  of  each  tool,  so  that  it  may 
easily  be  kept  in  place. 

Devices  of  all  sorts  for  keeping  the  tools  in  order  and  in 
good  shape  will  be  suggested  by  the  pupils  themselves.  This 
is  one  way  of  developing  responsibility.  At  any  rate,  they 
should  make  their  own  rules  and  suggest  their  own  penalties. 
Children  may  be  chosen  by  vote  to  regularly  inspect  the  tool 
room.  How  the  tools  were  cared  for  in  his  class  is  told  by 
a  boy  of  thirteen  in  an  exercise  in  written  English  : 

OUR  GARDEN  TOOL  HOUSE 

The  tools  of  the  young  boy  gardeners  of  the  Rice  School  are  kept  by 
a  committee  of  boys  called  The  Tool  Committee.  Their  duty  is  to  keep 
the  house  where  the  tools  are  kept  in  perfect  condition  and  to  provide 
the  boys  with  tools.  If  a  tool  breaks  or  comes  apart,  there  is  a  boy  who 
volunteers  to  repair  it. 

When  the  boys  come  to  work  in  the  garden,  they  form  a  line  near 
the  tool  house  and  ask  one  of  the  committee  to  give  him  a  certain  tool 
which  he  needs  for  his  kind  of  work  in  the  garden.  When  a  boy  asks 
for  a  spade,  he  must  need  it  for  digging  up  the  soil,  or  if  he  asks  for  a 
hoe,  he  must  need  it  for  gathering  up  the  rubbish,  and  when  he  asks  for 
a  rake,  he  probably  needs  it  to  take  the  rocks  out  of  his  garden.  Then 
there  is  a  scratcher  to  pulverize  the  soil  or  to  dig  around  some  roots,  and 
then  there  is  a  trowel  to  make  holes  in  the  ground  and  a  water  can  to 
water  the  gardens.  We  try  to  have  the  tool  house  as  clean  as  possible 
and  see  that  everything  is  in  its  right  place. 

One  season's  experience  will  prove  how  great  an  advantage 
it  is  to  associate  with  the  gardening  some  instruction  in 
woodwork.  Not  a  day  will  pass  without  a  frantic  call  for  the 
carpenter.  A  few  labels  are  unexpectedly  needed ;  the  han- 
dle of  a  shattered  spade  is  to  be  cleverly  sharpened  into  a 
useful  dibble ;  a  support  must  be  devised  for  the  hop  vines 
before  nightfall.  Plenty  of  stakes  and  raffia  should  be  always 
on  hand  for  tying  up  vines  and  high-headed  plants.  Raffia 


A  WORD  FOR  GOOD  TOOLS  8 1 

is  a  tough,  flat  grass  sold  for  just  this  purpose  at  all  seed 
stores.  It  is  the  very  best  material,  by  the  by,  for  tying  cut 
flowers. 

The  far-sighted  policy  of  the  Children's  Farm  in  New 
York  is  shown  by  the  opportunity  given  the  children  to  carry 
on  the  several  kinds  of  handicraft  which  naturally  accompany 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  A  course  in  woodwork  connected 
with  the  gardening  class  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tage, if  not  positively  indispensable.  Indeed,  a  bench  and  a 
few  carpenter's  tools  might  well  be  included  as  part  of  the 
gardening  outfit. 

Garden  occupations  may  be  made  more  enjoyable  for  chil- 
dren and  a  great  deal  more  popular  with  mothers  if  sorne 
attention  is  paid  to  appropriate  dress.  It  is  truly  pathetic  to 
watch  a  child,  doubled  over  in  absorbed  interest,  try  to  divide 
his  attention  between  the  gyrations  of  an  earthworm  and 
solicitude  for  a  pair  of  light  stockings  or  a  freshly  starched 
blouse.  An  apron  or  overalls,  such  as  is  neat  and  workman- 
like for  carpentry  or  for  cooking,  adds  immensely  to  the  care- 
free spirit  of  gardening.  Made  of  denim  or  linen,  it  may  be 
a  pretty  and  becoming  costume.  Might  it  not  work  well  for 
the  members  of  the  carpentry  class  and  the  sewing  class  to 
exchange  courtesies  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 
PLANTING 

It  was  one  of  the  most  bewitching  sights  in  the  world  to  observe  a  hill 
of  beans  thrusting  aside  the  soil.  —  HAWTHORNE 

Of  all  the  wonderful  things  in  the  wonderful  universe  of  God,  nothing 
seems  to  me  more  surprising  than  the  planting  of  a  seed  in  the  black  earth 
and  the  result  thereof.  —  CELIA  THAXTER 

In  planting,  the  main  thought  of  the  gardener  is  how  he 
may  manage  to  keep  the  whole  of  his  garden  busy  all  the 
time.  His  object  is  twofold.  He  aims  to  get  as  large  a  sup- 
ply of  vegetables  as  possible,  but  at  the  same  time  he  is  look- 
ing out  for  the  welfare  of  the  land.  Leaving  the  soil  idle  for 
one  short  week  means,  of  course,  that  the  succeeding  crop  is 
retarded.  More  than  that,  it  means  that  the  effect  of  tillage 
is  being  wasted,  and  that  a  horde  of  weeds,  not  yet  in  sight, 
it  is  true,  but  surely  advancing,  has  begun  to  claim  the  land 
for  its  own.  The  insidious  drain  made  by  weeds  upon  the 
moisture  and  fertility  of  fields  is  strangely  enough  not  half 
realized. 

In  the  old  days  the  season  for  outdoor  planting  in  northern 
latitudes  used  to  be  considered  as  extending  from  March  to 
August,  hardly  longer.  But  tactics  have  changed,  and  now  the 
season  may  be  said  to.  last  all  the  year  round.  Grass  seed,  for 
instance,  is  sown  while  the  snow  still  lingers  in  drifts.  Winter 
wheat  started  in  September  will  have  shoots  all  ready  to  send 
up  as  early  in  the  spring  as  any  spots  become  bare. 

Taking  into  account  all  these  new  possibilities  does  not, 
however,  prevent  the  advisability  of  roughly  mapping  out  a 

82 


PLANTING  83 

half-year  of  gardening  into  three  planting  periods  :  early,  mid- 
summer, and  late.  The  early  spring  planting  would  include 
lettuce,  carrots,  radishes,  onions,  and  early  peas,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  beans  and  corn  ;  the  midsummer  planting  calls  for 
cabbage,  tomato  plants,  and  beets,  and  also  for  carrots  again ; 
the  autumn  planting  includes  such  vegetables  as  celery,  cab- 
bage, and  cauliflower,  all  of  which  will  be  set  out  as  small 
plants,  with  the  addition  of  such  seeds  as  can  withstand  the 
hardships  of  winter.  As  a  rule,  do  not  replace  a  plant  by  one 
which  takes  out  of  the  soil  its  food  materials  in  about  the 
same  proportion  ;  plan  rather  to  replace  it  by  a  plant  which 
will  use  elements  that  have  not  yet  been  largely  drawn  upon. 
The  food  in  the  soil  can  thus  be  made  to  go  a  great  deal 
farther.  A  few  general  rules  will  save  many  a  mistake.  To 
begin  with,  it  should  be  remembered  that,  classed  according 
to  diet,  such  vine  plants  as  the  cucumber  and  squash  belong 
in  one  group  ;  that  the  root  crops,  together  with  potatoes  and 
onions  (neither  of  which,  of  course,  is  a  true  root),  belong  in 
another ;  while  the  seed  crops,  beans  and  peas,  together  with 
the  cabbage  tribe  and  tomatoes,  make  a  third.  All  those  that 
belong  in  one  of  these  groups  have  been  found  to  use  up  the 
essential  food  elements  in  about  the  same  proportions.  This 
gives  a  simple  basis  for  the  rules  of  crop  rotation.  Cabbage 
consumes  a  great  amount  of  nitrogen ;  so  does  corn.  Corn 
and  potatoes,  on  the  other  hand,  draw  heavily  upon  the  sup- 
ply of  potash.  Beans  and  peas,  however,  actually  enrich  the 
soil  with  proteids,  which,  as  we  know,  are  so  valuable  for 
the  nitrogen  they  contain. 

The  subject  of  crop  rotation  is  one  that  requires  serious  con- 
sideration. This  deals  with  the  system  by  which  a  carefully 
arranged  sequence  of  different  crops  is  grown  advantageously 
upon  the  same  piece  of  land.  Such  a  scheme  is  directly 
opposed  to  the  old-fashioned  one-crop  system,  by  which 


84  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

land,  after  a  few  years,  got  "  all  wore  out."  The  plan  of  regu- 
larly changing  crops  is  in  a  sense  new,  and  yet  on  the  best 
farms  rotation  has  long  been  in  vogue  even  when  the  scientific 
reasons  underlying  the  practice  have  not  been  fully  understood. 

The  method,  after  all,  is  nature's  own.  Whatever  may  be 
the  explanation,  nobody  can  have  failed  to  observe  how  uni- 
versally a  natural  rotation  takes  place  in  the  yield  of  wild 
land.  Let  an  oak  grove  be  doomed  to  the  ax,  and  lo !  up 
springs  a  pine  thicket.  Cutting  off  the  pines  in  their  turn 
gives  a  signal  for  young  birches  to  step  quietly  in.  As  for 
maple  and  ash  clearings,  the  owner  can  scarcely  turn  around 
before  the  tangles  of  low-bush  blueberry  are  up  knee-high. 

Not  only  is  the  amount  of  nutriment  in  land  a  matter  which 
a  farmer  must  understand,  but  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  know 
how  deep  the  roots  of  a  plant  will  strike  to  get  its  food.  In 
this  respect  plants  vary  surprisingly.  Clover  and  alfalfa  roots 
are  able  to  penetrate  several  feet ;  sugar  beets  and  parsnips 
will  not  push  down  so  far,  but  they  will  always  root  deeper 
than  table  beets  and  onions.  Therefore  in  order  to  extract  the 
food  materials  economically,  —  and  this  means  more  or  less 
evenly,  —  it  will  be  advisable  in  rotating  to  choose  plants  that 
feed  at  different  depths.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  farmer 
to  use  certain  deep-rooting  plants,  like  the  turnips,  to  bring  to 
the  surface  of  the  land  food  materials  that  lie  out  of  the  reach 
of  his  ordinary  crop. 

There  is  another  reason  for  moving  a  given  crop  from  place 
to  place.  Every  crop  brings  in  its  wake  peculiar  troubles  of 
its  own.  One  set  of  grievances  to  the  farmer  and  his  crops 
arises  from  fungous  diseases ;  another  comes  from  insect  pests. 
The  spores,  or  seedlike  bodies,  of  each  fungus  thrive  upon  a 
particular  plant  and  almost  exclusively  upon  that  one  plant. 
Take  the  spore  of  the  potato  scab,  for  instance  ;  this  will 
grow  on  potatoes,  but,  as  a  rule,  on  no  other  vegetable.  If 


PLANTING  85 

potatoes  were  planted  year  after  year  in  the  same  corner  of 
a  garden,  the  land  would  very  likely  become  infected,  and  in 
time  scarcely  any  potatoes  in  a  whole  harvest  would  be  free 
from  disease.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  first  trace  of 
scab  appears,  the  potato  patch  is  transferred  to  another  spot, 
the  fungus,  faithful  to  its  choice,  is  starved  out. 

Insects,  to  be  sure,  allow  themselves  a  larger  range  of  food 
supply  than  fungi  do,  not  remaining  constant  to  one  plant. 
But  still  the  plan  of  shifting  a  group  of  plants  from  one  part  of 
a  garden  to  another  is,  for  the  reasons  already  given,  strongly 
advised.  The  hard-pushed  gardener  grimly  enjoys  giving 
young  insects  whose  birthplace  has  been  nicely  selected  by 
the  mother  the  surprise  of  a  lifetime  in  a  total  change  of  crop. 

Anybody  who  lives  near  a  truck  farm  hears  technical  ex- 
pressions with  which  he  becomes  familiar.  Gardeners  talk, 
for  example,  about  catch  crops,  cover  crops,  and  green  manure. 
By  catch  crop  they  mean  a  crop  that  is  planted  between  two 
money-making  crops.  A  cover  crop  means  some  crop  planted 
late  in  the  season,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  sol- 
uble food  which  would  otherwise  drain  away.  Clover  is  per- 
haps the  best,  but  winter  wheat  and  rye  and  turnips  also 
make  good  cover  crops.  These  are  usually  plowed  under  in 
the  spring ;  they  act  in  this  way  as  a  form  of  green  manure. 
Green  manuring  means  the  planting  of  certain  herbaceous 
plants  for  the  sole  purpose  of  enriching  the  soil.  Some  plant 
organisms  are  constituted  so  that  they  can  successfully  play 
this  role  of  benefactor  to  the  land.  Those  that  stand  pre- 
eminent as  great  soil  renovators  are  the  leguminous  plants. 
It  is  a  fact  that  three  representatives  of  this  family,  the  clover 
in  the  north,  and  the  cowpea  and  the  alfalfa  in  the  south,  have 
rejuvenated  miles  of  worn-out  farm  land. 

These  few  hints  will  at  least  serve  to  show  how  certain  defi- 
nite changes  in  crops  are  planned  by  the  farmer  according 


86 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


to  accepted  laws,  and  to  explain  why  only  a  poor  sort  of 
manager  could  make  so  absurd  a  mistake  as  to  keep  planting 
cauliflower  after  cabbage,  or  cabbage  after  lettuce ;  for  any 
thinking  person  can  see  at  half  a  glance  that  rotation  is  not 
only  the  best  policy,  but  the  only  policy. 

Still  another  advantage  of  living  near  a  truck  farm  is  that 
one  can  watch  the  working  out  of  clever  devices  in  planting, 

by  no  means  all  of  which 
are  described  in  books. 
A  neat  scheme,  for  ex- 
ample, is  to  put  into  one 
furrow  at  the  same  sow- 
ing two  kinds  of  seeds, 
one  quick  and  the  other 
slow  growing.  Radishes 
and  parsnips,  or  radishes 
and  carrots,  according  to 
this  plan,  start  life  as  boon 
companions.  While  the 
parsnips  are  slowly  creep- 
ing up,  the  three-weeks- 
old  radishes  are  ready  to 
eat.  Again,  between  rows 
of  onion  seeds  one  may 
put  early  relishes,  like  let- 
tuce, radishes,  and  spin- 
ach, all  of  which  will  have  appeared  at  dinner  before  the 
onions  need  space.  After  the  onions  are  well  along,  turnips 
can  be  sown  midway  between  the  rows.  Such  a  combination 
is  spoken  of  as  double  or  companion  cropping. 

Certain  seeds  are  planted  for  the  express  purpose  of  help- 
ing others  along.  If,  for  instance,  the  two  are  sown  together, 
the  radish  will  hurry  forward  the  carrot  seeds.  This  is  because 


ROTATION    PAYS 


PLANTING  87 

the  fast-growing  radishes  skirmish  ahead  and  break  the  way 
for  the  more  delicate,  deliberate  carrot  seeds.  Having  served 
their  altruistic  purpose,  the  radish  seedlings  are  weeded  out. 
Spare  no  pains  to  secure  first-rate  seeds.  The  wise  farmer 
puts  his  trust  in  the  best  houses  and  does  not  get  disap- 
pointed. He  is  not  to  be  caught  taking  chances  at  the  gro- 
cery store.  Seeds  bought  at  such  places  are  often  old  and  poor, 


SOUTH    CAROLINA    BOYS    MAKING    SEED    SELECTIONS 

and  the  proportion  of  seeds  that  germinate  has  been  known 
to  fall  as  low  as  sixty  per  cent  or  even  less.  Nowadays,  school 
children  in  cities  can  usually  obtain  good  seed  in  penny  pack- 
ages through  educational  centers.  Fresh  seed  is  generally  easy 
to  recognize  by  its  bright,  new  surface.  Peas  are  an  exception  ; 
even  in  their  best  days  they  may  look  aged  and  wrinkled. 

It  is  part  of  a  gardener's  business  to  know  how  to  test  his 
seeds.  There  are  elaborate  methods  which  may  be  recom- 
mended, but  simple  rules  will  answer  most  purposes.  Any 


88  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

child  can  learn  how  to  take  a  given  number  of  seeds  and 
spread  them  in  moist  cloths  between  two  dinner  plates  laid 
edge  to  edge.  Then,  by  counting  the  sprouted  seeds,  he  can 
get  the  percentage  of  germination.  This  exercise,  by  the  way, 
makes  a  capital  introduction  to  the  study  of  percentage.  In 
truth  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  better. 

A  forcible  illustration  of  how  this  exercise  can  be  turned 
to  practical  account  is  contributed  by  a  young  girl  of  thirteen 
who  has  become  so  efficient  in  seed  testing  that  she'  tests  all 
the  seeds  used  on  her  father's  model  farm  l  covering  about 
eight  acres.  As  may  be  imagined,  she  is  learning  a  great 
many  things  in  the  course  of  doing  this  very  helpful  piece  of 
work.  Some  consider  this  the  most  effective  sort  of  education. 

Before  beginning  to  test  seed,  it  is  a  good  plan,  so  they 
say,  to  examine  it  as  follows  :  Weigh  out  three  grams  of  seed, 
—  onion,  clover,  or  timothy,  for  instance,  —  and  spread  it  on  a 
sheet  of  paper.  Then  with  a  hand  lens  separate  the  seeds 
into  three  piles  :  in  the  first  put  the  chaff,  dirt,  broken  seed, 
etc. ;  in  the  second,  all  the  weed  seed  ;  in  the  third,  the  good 
seed.  Then  weigh  each  lot,  comparing  the  results.  The 
good  seed  can  then  be  tested  as  above  for  germination.  Try- 
ing several  samples  of  the  same  kind  of  seed  from  different 
sources  soon  teaches  a  gardener  with  whom  to  trade. 

By  the  time  the  seeds  have  been  tested,  much  labor  will  of 
course  have  been  expended  upon  the  land.  First  it  has  been 
thoroughly  spaded  ;  then  the  large  lumps  have  been  broken 
with  the  fork  ;  and  afterwards  it  has  been  raked  over.  Is  the 
soil,  then,  we  ask,  ready  to  receive  the  seeds  ?  Far  from  it ; 
the  gardener  must  not  be  discouraged  at  hearing  that  a 
creditable  seed  bed  calls  for  a  great  deal  more  attention.  In 
fact,  the  most  irksome  and,  no  doubt  to  his  surprise,  the  most 
important  task  of  all  remains.  This  consists  in  picking  out 

1  G.  W.  Field,  Sharon,  Massachusetts. 


PLANTING  89 

all' the  stones,  big  and  little,  and  in  crumbling  the  last  ob- 
stinate lumps.  For  a  lump  of  earth,  which  invariably  ties  up 
a  supply  of  food,  may  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  an  invest- 
ment. A  perfectly  safe  investment  this,  but  certainly  not  an 
available  one  ;  and  on  that  account  many  a  plant,  just  for  the 
need  of  a  little  ready  food,  may  actually  starve  to  death. 
Thoroughly  crumbling  the  lump  would  have  saved  the  plant- 
let's  life.  "  Fining  soil,"  writes  an  expert,  "  may  be  equal  to 
fertilizing  it."  Indeed,  the  ideal  soil  texture  has  been  de- 
scribed as  resembling  nothing  so  much  as  soft,  black  soot. 
Fortunately,  if  sufficient  pains  is  taken,  even  very  ordinary  soil 
can  be  brought  to  that  high  pitch  of  refinement.  It  happened 
not  long  ago  that  some  schoolboys  listened  with  a  good  deal 
of  interest  to  a  discussion  upon  this  subject,  but  shrugged 
their  shoulders  at  the  thought  of  descending  to  such  petty 
methods.  Still  they  did  not  feel  quite  satisfied  without  test- 
ing the  matter  for  themselves.  So  they  smuggled  from  home 
an  old  bread  sieve  and  pulverized  one  little  patch  till  the  earth 
that  passed  through  was  as  fine  and  soft  as  flour.  Then  they 
"  raced  "  two  sets  of  plants,  growing  one  set  in  lumpy  clods 
and  the  other  in  this  superfine  material.  As  a  result  the 
records  of  the  second  lot  ran  so  far  ahead  of  the  first,  in  size 
and  strength,  as  to  make  sifting  all  the  rage  in  this  school. 

At  last,  through  infinite  pains,  the  ground,  let  us  suppose, 
is  right ;  the  seeds  are  right ;  it  only  remains  now  for  us  to 
"  put  them  in  right."  Just  two  points  are  to  be  kept  in  mind  : 
the  distance  apart  and  the  depth.  There  is,  no  doubt,  a  right 
depth  for  every  seed,  if  we  but  knew  it.  For  many  of  the 
commonest  seeds  experienced  gardeners  have  worked  out  cer- 
tain general  rules,  which,  for  convenience,  are  recorded  in  a 
planting  table.1  The  depth  at  which  they  are  placed  makes 
all  the  difference  in  the  world  to  some  seeds,  while  to  other 

1  See  Appendix. 


90  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

seeds  it  matters  far  less.  Nevertheless  it  is  true,  on  the 
whole,  that  a  shallow  planting  exposes  seed  to  many  dangers, 
not  the  least  of  which  is  the  hunger  of  birds  and  beasts. 
On  the  other  hand,  to  bury  seed  so  deep  that  it  decays  before 
it  can  even  begin  to  struggle  to  the  light  brings  sure  failure. 

And  yet  who  is  clairvoyant  enough  to  know  exactly  what 
is  happening  underground  ?  A  simple  contrivance  that  re- 
veals many  a  secret  of  germination  is  the  planting  box  with 
glass  sides.1  Several  seeds  of  the  same  kind  can  thus  be 
planted  at  the  same  time  and  under  the  same  conditions  but 
at  different  depths,  and  their  progress  can  be  watched  from 
day  to  day.  The  best  depth  for  many  seeds  will  be  found  to 
vary  from  one  eighth  of  an  inch  to  one  and  one-quarter  inches. 
Squash,  for  instance,  should  be  planted  one  inch  deep,  lettuce 
one  eighth  of  an  inch,  while  early  smooth  peas  must  go  in 
four  inches.  A  rule  sometimes  given  is  that  the  seeds  which 
carry  their  cotyledons  above  ground,  as  in  the  case  of  beans 
or  squash,  should  be  covered  by  soil  five  times  their  thickness, 
while  those,  like  peas  and  others,  which  do  not  bring  up  their 
cotyledons  should  be  covered  by  ten  times  their  thickness  of 
earth.  In  deciding  the  question,  however,  the  expert  always 
takes  into  account  such  items  as  the  character  of  the  soil, 
the  temperature,  and  the  amount  of  moisture. 

If  rules  for  depth  seem  a  little  vague,  it  is  equally  difficult 
to  give  precise  ones  for  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  sown  in  a 
given  space.  In  spite  of  the  pages  of  printed  directions  at 
the  gardener's  disposal,  the  quantity  of  seed  used  will,  in  a 
measure,  have  to  be  a  matter  of  guesswork.  Either  of  two 
extremes  will  plunge  the  beginner  into  extravagance.  One 
extreme  is  to  sow  too  scantily,  the  danger  then  being  that 
when  some  seeds  die,  as  they  surely  will,  great  gaps  will 
stare  him  in  the  face,  and  the  earth,  left  bare,  will  go  to 

1  See  Appendix,  page  222. 


PLANTING  91 

waste.  On  the  other  hand,  although  crowding  seed  seems  the 
height  of  extravagance,  this  mistake,  if  taken  early  enough, 
may  be  rectified  by  a  brave  thinning.  Where  seed  sowing 
is  concerned,  children  are  always  prodigals.  Nothing  seems 
to  shake  them  in  the  belief  that  if  some  is  good,  more  is 
better,  and  neither  the  solemn  warnings  of  their  elders,  nor 
their  own  fuzzy  rows  of  crowded  seedlings,  where  a  plantlet 
has  not  half  a  chance,  will  cure  them  of  this  fallacy.  Their 
illusions  are  destined  to  be  shattered,  however,  when  it  comes 
to  thinning,  —  for  thin  they  must,  reluctant  though  every 
youngster  is  to  pull  up  a  single  one  of  his  precious  plantlets. 
It  really  does  seem  little  short  of  heartless,  considering  that 
they  have  grown  at  our  bidding,  to  root  up  the  tender  things. 
Yet,  —  comforting  thought,  —  these  same  seedlings  may  be 
transplanted  ;  and  even  when  this  is  not  advisable,  they  need 
never  be  a  dead  loss,  for  they  can  be  tucked  back  into  the 
earth  bed  and  so  contribute  their  mite  toward  enriching  it. 

The  temptation  to  waste  seed  is  lessened,  and  the  per- 
centage of  failure  in  seedlings  is  reduced,  by  sprouting  the 
seeds  before  putting  them  into  the  ground.  Such  preparation 
gives  them  a  surer  and  a  quicker  start.  Again,  particularly  in 
small  gardens,  seeds,  instead  of  being  scattered,  will  almost 
always  be  planted  in  drills,  —  drill  being  another  name  for  a 
shallow  furrow.  With  some  seeds  it  pays  to  take  even  further 
trouble.  A  Lima  bean,  for  example,  laid  on  its  edge  with  the 
eye  down,  far  outstrips  one  which,  dropped  in  hit  or  miss, 
must  twist  itself  around. 

Make  the  drills  absolutely  true  by  ruling  them  with  the  aid 
of  a  garden  line  and  a  sharp  stick,  or  by  pressing  a  hoe 
handle  into  the  soft  earth.  The  more  precisely  this  is  done, 
the  handsomer  the  effect,  and  the  more  easily  the  plants  are 
cared  for.  The  distance  apart  for  these  drills  depends  upon 
the  spread  of  the  full-grown  plant,  both  above  and  below 


92  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

ground.  It  is  safest,  on  the  whole,  to  allow  ample  room.  Give 
rein  to  the  .imagination,  remembering  that,  if  all  goes  well,  one 
wee,  shriveled  seed  will  make  an  opulent  tomato  plant. 

Suppose  that  the  drills  have  been  of  the  required  depth, 
that  the  seeds  have  been  scattered  or  laid  within  at  the  proper 
distance,  that  the  soil  has  been  raked  over  the  seeds  without 
disturbing  them  and  has  been  made  firm  by  pressure ;  the 
next  move  is  to  pack  them  in  tight.  Accordingly  tread,  yes, 
stamp  them  down,  or  press  them  with  a  board.  In  case  the 
earth  is  too  dry  at  the  time  of  sowing,  it  is  a  good  scheme  to 
fill  the  furrow  with  water,  then  lay  in  the  seeds,  crumbling 
over  them  some  damp  earth.  Finally,  pack  them  down  as 
already  directed,  and  make  it  a  rule  always  to  scatter  along 
the  surface  of  the  row  a  layer  of  loose,  dry  earth.  Do  not 
leave  the  spot  without  marking  it  clearly  with  a  wooden 
or  a  metal  label  telling  the  name  of  the  seed  and  other  data. 
This  is  more  important  than  one  might  guess.  The  habit  of 
careful  labeling  prevents  many  an  awkward  mistake,  and  it 
makes  a  garden  far  more  interesting. 

All  the  planting,  of  course,  will  not  be  done  in  the  open. 
Many  sorts  of  plants  can  be  started  under  cover,  anticipating 
the  season  by  a  month  or  more,  and  at  the  right  time  they 
can  be  set  outdoors.  Everything  that  can  possibly  masquer- 
ade as  a  window  box  or  pot  will  now  be  pressed  into  service. 
Tin  cans  and  cigar  boxes  suddenly  rise  in  value.  Whether 
indoors  or  out,  the  use  of  various  sorts  of  glass  covers  to 
prevent  rapid  evaporation  will  be  found  indispensable. 

Some  of  this  preliminary  planting,  besides,  is  often  done  by 
young  people  just  by  way  of  experiment ;  they  want  to  try  new 
ways  of  testing  seeds,  of  growing  them  at  different  depths,  and 
of  starting  them  in  different  materials.  Some  attention  will 
unquestionably  be  given  to  preparing  a  little  nursery  of  seed- 
lings for  transplanting.  Indeed,  one  can  seldom  have  too 


PLANTING 


93 


many  seedlings,  especially  if  one  likes  to  exchange,  or  to  share 
with  neighbors  who  have  not  been  so  forehanded.  Here  it  is 
that  an  older  person  often  has  it  in  his  power  to  turn,  by  a 
chance  word,  the  current  of  thought  of  his  young  friends  in 
one  direction  or  another,  by  stimulating  what  is  called  idle 
curiosity  so  that  it  develops  into  a  true  scientific  spirit. 

Much  of  the  technic  of  planting  can  really  be  learned 
indoors ;  the  principles  will  then  need  to  be  applied  on  a 
larger  scale  to  the  conditions  outside.  Even  the  simplest 
window  boxes  call  for  well-prepared  soil  and  for  a  knowledge 
of  how  to  put  in  seeds  and  how  to  water  them.  In  these  the 
question  of  drainage  is  something  of  a  puzzle.  To  arrange  this 
indoors  naturally  requires  special  contrivances.  It  is  usually 
secured  by  simply  making  a  few  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box  or  can.  These  holes  are  covered  with  flat  stones,  so  that 
the  earth  will  not  sift  out,  and  the  entire  bottom  is  then 
spread  with  a  layer  of  pebbles,  earthenware  fragments,  and 
bits  of  charcoal  before  filling  the  box  with  earth.  Cigar  boxes, 
strawberry  boxes,  and  the  like  will  obligingly  leak  enough  to 
drain  properly. 

Growing  under  glass  is  a  fascinating  occupation.  In  these 
days  some  knowledge  of  the  methods  now  employed  is  part 
of  the  equipment  of  every  gardener.  Within  fifteen  miles  of 
Boston,  for  example,  the  enormous  space  of  more  than  two 
million  square  feet  of  glass,  or  over  forty  acres,  is  devoted 
solely  to  vegetables.  It  pays  at  the  not  insignificant  rate  of 
fifty  cents  per  year  for  every  square  foot. 

Culture  under  glass  aims  to  copy  nature  at  her  best,  so  it 
will  be  arranged  that  the  frame  shall  bask  in  full  south  sun- 
shine and  be  protected  on  its  north  side.  The  very  simplest 
form  of  growing  under  glass  is  the  cold  frame.  Just  a  single 
large  pane  fitted  into  the  top  of  a  box,  which  is  to  act  as  a 
temporary  protection  for  a  few  plants,  will  do  as  a  beginning. 


94 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


The  first  cold  frame,  for  instance,  used  in  the  Boston 
school  gardens  was  made  of  planks  nailed  together  to  support 
a  window  sash  three  feet  by  six.  This  old  double  window 
belonged  to  the  schoolhouse  and  had  been  lying  discarded 
for  years  in  the  basement.  Suitable  soil  was  made  by  mixing 
loam  with  barnyard  manure.  Several  hundred  plants  were 
easily  grown  here  at  one  time,  and  there  was  space  for  many 


NORMAL-SCHOOL   STUDENTS    WORKING^  AT    THE    COLD    FRAME 

more  seeds.  In  the  frame  were  started  different  kinds  of 
early  vegetables  ;  and  these  got  under  way  a  good  month  be- 
fore the  weather  permitted  planting  outdoors.  Lettuce,  cab- 
bage, tomatoes,  spinach,  and  parsley  throve  here  beautifully. 
By  the  time  these  had  made  a  good  start  and  had  been  pricked 
out  once,  —  in  other  words  transplanted  to  other  boxes,  —  it 
was  mild  enough  to  transplant  them  to  open  ground.  Need- 
less to  say,  it  was  worth  the  trouble. 


PLANTING  95 

The  simple  routine  necessary  in  caring  for  a  cold  frame  is 
easily  followed.  The  slanting  sash  should  be  lifted  a  little 
while  each  day  to  secure  ventilation.  A  thermometer  hung 
inside  the  frame  registers  the  temperature,  which  will  be  kept 
always  near  summer  heat.  This  gentle  warmth  is  furnished 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  manure  that  has  been  mixed 
with  the  soil,  as  well  as  by  the  sun's  rays,  which  pass  through 
the  glass  but  are  prevented  by  the  glass  from  radiating. 

One  year's  success  with  a  cold  frame  tempts  a  gardener  to 
try  a  hotbed.  This  is  not  so  difficult  a  matter  as  a  beginner 
might  suppose.  A  little  skill,  to  be  sure,  is  required  to  con- 
trol the  heat,  which  in  this  case  is  furnished  by  fresh  stable 
manure.  In  the  fall  the  gardener  mixes  the  manure  with 
straw,  piling  it  in  a  dry  place  to  let  it  ferment.  Later  he 
forks  it  over  several  times.  When  he  starts  his  hotbed,  he 
spreads  this  dressing  so  that  it  will  partly  fill  a  shallow  pit 
somewhat  larger  in  area  than  the  wooden  frame,  packing  it 
down  hard  and  spreading  on  more  until  it  has  reached  a 
depth  of  two  feet.  He  then  sets  down  the  rectangular  frame, 
forcing  the  sides  into  the  dressing  until  it  stands  firm.  Within 
the  frame,  which  is  built  at  least  a  foot  higher  at  the  back 
than  at  the  front,  to  give  a  good  slant  to  the  glass,  he  places 
a  layer  of  dry  leaves  or  straw.  The  reason  is  obviously  to 
separate  from  the  dressing  the  layer  next  above  it,  which  is 
to  consist  of  rich  soil.  This  soil  is  now  spread  on  layer  by 
layer.  It  will  be  at  least  six  inches  thick,  so  that  the  seeds 
will  not  be  in  danger  of  touching  the  hot  manure.  The  ther- 
mometer, we  will  suppose,  has  been  pushed  down  a  little  way 
into  the  soil  as  a  telltale.  This  must  be  constantly  consulted, 
for  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  amount  of  heat  that  is  being 
generated.  The  temperature  before  planting  begins  should 
be  steady,  ranging  between  sixty  and  eighty  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. If  it  runs  higher,  some  safety-valve  holes  must  be  made 


96  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

in  the  earth  to  let  the  superfluous  heat  escape.  If  it  runs 
below,  more  manure  must  be  added.  Hotbeds  are  often 
expensively  built  and  elaborately  heated  ;  but  a  plain  frame 
costing  nothing  but  the  labor,  provided  one  has  stock  and 
some  pieces  of  glass,  often  works  wonders. 

Whether  one  is  specializing  in  vegetables  or  flowers,  a 
gardener  will  always  do  well  to  save  a  little  space  for  bulbs. 
Bulbs  will  glorify  any  sort  of  garden.  They  allow  themselves 
to  be  tucked  so  conveniently  anywhere  and  everywhere,  — 
into  the  corners  of  a  kitchen  garden,  dotting  a  lawn,  or  along 
the  curbstone  of  a  little  front  yard.  City  people  will  walk  a 
mile  and  more  to  see  the  first  purple  and  yellow  crocuses 
springing  up  on  a  March  day  from  beneath  the  patches  of 
snow.  To  say  that  raising  bulbs  is  easy  sounds  overconfi- 
dent, but  as  a  matter  of  fact  bulbs  only  insist  upon  having 
rich  loam,  good  drainage,  and  a  little  judicious  care.  Failure 
to  make  them  succeed  may  pretty  surely  be  traced  to  the 
neglect  of  one  of  these  conditions. 

Late  September  is  the  time  for  setting  out  winter  bulbs. 
It  is  wise  to  line  the  holes  with  a  little  sand,  to  prevent  the 
earth  from  getting  soggy  and  thus  rotting  the  bulbs.  In 
order  to  keep  them  snug  and  warm  during  the  winter,  pile 
on  mattings  of  straw,  or  boughs,  or  leaves.  Then  in  the 
spring  remove  the  wrappings,  but  not  too  suddenly.  Bulbs 
may  be  left  in  the  ground  throughout  the  year  to  flower  each 
spring  during  successive  seasons,  provided  the  space  is  not 
required  by  other  plants.  If  the  room  should  be  needed, 
however,  store  them  and  later  set  them  out  again.  When 
once  established,  they  multiply  at  a  great  rate,  growing  in  spite 
of  all  sorts  of  drawbacks,  so  that  your  stock  is  bound  to 
increase.  No  plants  yield  more  lovely  blossoms  for  the  house. 
For  this  purpose  they  may  be  grown  in  almost  anything  that 
allows  good  drainage. 


PLANTING  97 

House-grown  plants  from  bulbs  are  treated  according  to 
the  same  general  principles  as  those  outdoors.  After  they 
have  been  put  in  pots  or  boxes  they  pass  their  resting  stage 
in  a  cold,  dark  part  of  the  cellar.  Some  of  these  will  be 
brought  out  into  a  warm,  sunny  room  early  in  December,  in 
case  they  are  to  be  used  for  Christmas.  But  newly  started 
bulbs  should  be  "  hardened  off  "  in  partial  light  and  in  a  cool 
room  before  being  placed  in  the  sun.  Keep  back  the  others 
so  as  to  have  them  flower  in  succession. 

There  is  often  a  good  profit  in  raising  bulbs  for  private 
sale.  In  Boston  one  of  the  events  looked  forward  to  by  many 
lovers  of  plants  is  the  annual  exhibit  of  hundreds  of  bulbs 
raised  by  a  woman  who  makes  bulb  growing  a  specialty,  and 
who  devotes  the  proceeds  to  charity. 

Out  in  the  garden  the  crocus,  daffodil,  hyacinth,  and  freesia 
may  all  be  cultivated  successfully.  Explicit  directions  for  the 
special  treatment  that  each  requires  will  be  found  in  the  cata- 
logues. Every  gardener  will,  of  course,  have  his  favorites ; 
but  the  beauty  of  the  rest  certainly  dims  beside  the  glorious 
flames  of  the  tulip.  Another  bulb  of  rare  beauty  which  blooms 
in  the  summer  and  autumn,  and  one  which  is  a  stranger  to  some 
gardens,  is  the  gladiolus.  If  gladiolus  bulbs  are  planted  at 
intervals  from  April  to  June,  the  plants  will  flower  as  late  as 
November.  When  their  flexible  stems  are  supported  by  wire 
or  stakes,  they  stand  the  early  frosts  bravely.  The  gladiolus 
is  one  of  the  plants  which,  within  a  few  years,  has  begun  to 
delight  flower  growers  with  its  matchless  beauty.  One  stalk 
of.  exquisite  blossoms  will  sometimes  sweep  through  nearly  a 
whole  rainbow  of  color.  A  very  practical  reason  for  their 
popularity  is  that  the  bulbs  may  be  bought  by  the  hundreds 
at  very  reasonable  prices.  The  canna  and  the  dahlia  also 
flower  superbly  in  summer  and  autumn.  These  do  not  grow 
from  bulbs,  but  from  roots ;  and  they  propagate  by  root 


98  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

division.  Late  spring  is  the  time  to  plant.  One  hint  to  those 
who  cannot  make  room  for  a  bulb  bed  or  border  :  Try  plant- 
ing crocuses  and  scillas  in  the  grass,  even  under  trees.  Make 
little  holes  with  a  crowbar  or  pointed  stick,  and  set  them  out 
by  the  hundreds.  They  look  lovely  against  the  background 
of  green. 

The  sequel  to  planting  is  transplanting.  Success  depends 
upon  many  of  the  conditions  already  mentioned,  and  upon  still 
others  that  will  be  discussed  later. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ART   OF  MAKING  THINGS   GROW 
t 

Good  tilth  brings  seeds  ; 
111  tilture,  weeds.  —  TUPPER 

The  easy  assurance  of  this  phrase  may  possibly  suggest  a 
get-rich-quick  scheme,  or  a  proprietary  medicine.  But  we  know 
very  well  that  the  expert  has  learned  by  experience  many  a 
short  cut  to  successful  gardening.  Moreover,  he  is  only  too 
glad  to  pass  along  his  devices  to  any  young  gardener  who 
will  stop  long  enough  to  listen.  These  devices  sound  trivial 
enough  in  themselves,  but  they  usually  connect  with  some 
established  agricultural  principle.  They  remind  one  of  elec- 
tric wires,  which  are  of  little  use  unless  they  can  establish 
connections  with  the  central  dynamo. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  time  when  a  friendly  hint  is  more  ap- 
preciated than  when  the  first  planting  of  one's  first  garden  is 
finished.  The  rush  is  over ;  the  seeds  lie  snugly  tucked  in 
the  ground  ;  and  over  the  surface  a  thin  blanket  of  dry  earth 
has  been  lightly  spread.  Taking  a  last  look  at  his  work,  the 
young  gardener  involuntarily  draws  a  sigh  of  relief.  This 
says  as  plainly  as  words  that  he  considers  his  part  of  the  con- 
tract fulfilled,  and  that  now  he  depends  upon  Madam  Nature 
to  do  hers.  This  attitude  is  quite  common  to  beginners  ;  we 
are  not  all  so  frank,  however,  in  acknowledging  it  as  the  young 
girl  who  had  been  brimming  with  enthusiasm  in  getting  her 
garden  under  way,  but  who,  a  little  later,  wrote  to  a  friend 
that  she  had  finished  planting,  and  that  since  then  there  was 
really  nothing  for  her  to  do ;  she  was  waiting  for  her  plants 

99 


100  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

to  grow.  An  old  hand  would  consider  this  a  great  joke ;  he 
would  be  tempted  to  remark  that  if  her  idea  was  to  bury 
seeds  and  then  simply  linger  about,  her  best  crop  would 
consist  chiefly  of  great  expectations. 

Experienced  gardeners  take  this  matter  very  seriously  and 
have  a  great  deal  to  say  about  the  care  of  crops  at  this  stage. 
"Tend  the  crop  as  you  would  tend  pet  animals,"  says  one. 
"  Water  and  stir  the  soil  as  untiringly  as  a  cook  does  her 
kettle  "  are  the  words  of  another.  But  the  bother  of  it !  And 
after  all,  what  difference  does  it  make  ?  The  gardener  answers 
that  the  surface  of  the  land  hardens  and  crusts  over  if  it  is 
left  untended.  A  hard  soil  that  has  begun  to  cake  effectually 
blocks  the  progress  of  the  delicate  seedlings  which  are  try- 
ing with  all  their  might  and  main  to  push  their  tiny  heads 
through.  More  than  this,  it  does  not  offer  at  all  the  right 
consistency  for  soaking  up  rainfall  and  dew.  Soil,  above  all 
things,  should  be  porous  and  spongy.  If  it  fails  in  this,  the 
water  (except,  of  course,  in  case  of  a  heavy  downpour,  when 
the  earth  cannot  help  getting  drenched)  quickly  drains  off  into 
the  hollows,  where  it  settles  in  puddles.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
thirsty  roots  remain  high  and  dry,  and  the  water,  all  too  soon, 
evaporates  and  becomes  nothing  but  a  memory. 

Now  roots  have  a  wonderful  way  of  seeking  their  water 
supply.  In  whatever  direction  water  may  lie,  their  tendency 
is  to  grow  toward  it.  A  deep  source  is  an  advantage,  for  the 
deeper  it  is,  be  it  natural  or  artificial,  the  more  unfailing  will 
probably  be  the  reservoir.  The  turn  roots  take,  therefore,  is 
closely  connected  with  the  method  of  watering.  Thorough 
soaking  means  deep-striking  roots,  while  surface  watering 
means  shallow  roots.  This  latter  method  of  treating  soil  suits 
weeds  to  perfection  ;  they  want  no  better  invitation.  A  mul- 
titude of  tiny  seeds,  as  we  know,  are  always  lying  dormant  in 
the  dressing.  Others,  perhaps,  have  been  flying  with  the  wind 


THE  ART  OF  MAKING  THINGS 


and  meeting  a  shower  have  been  caught  for  the  moment  in  the 
fresh  damp.  Now  weeds  are  famous  surface  growers  ;  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye  they  strike  root.  At  all  events  they  make 
far  better  speed  in  getting  above  ground  than  most  of  our 
carefully  planted  seeds.  The  little  beggars  seem  to  under- 
stand, too,  that  at  this  stage,  where  so  many  tiny  green  shoots 
are  just  peeping  up,  a  garden  ignoramus  will  get  bewildered 
and  will  not  be  willing  to  risk  pulling  them  out.  So  they  get 
at  least  one  day's  grace.  They  have  gained  their  point,  and 
a  fight  with  the  pesky  things  is  on. 

A  gardener  who  means  to  win  must  use  strategy.  A  true 
diplomatist  therefore  covers  the  ground  with  a  sort  of  dust 
blanket  or  mulch.  This  is  accomplished  by  gently  stirring 
or  pulverizing  the  surface  as  often  as  possible.  Such  treat- 
ment checks  weeds,  inasmuch  as  it  takes  the  ground  from 
under  their  very  feet.  In  a  big  garden  this  is  done  at  stated 
intervals ;  in  a  little  one,  nearly  every  day.  A  blanket  of 
this  sort  also  protects  the  earth  and  enables  it  to  conserve 
the  precious  moisture.  So  long  as  the  earth  looks  wet,  the 
moisture  is  pretty  sure  to  be  slyly  escaping.  Prevent  this  by 
spreading  on  a  dry  powder,  and  presto  !  evaporation  stops. 

Now  water  acts  according  to  the  laws  of  capillary  attraction 
in  the  soil  just  as  it  does  in  a  lamp  wick  or  a  lump  of  sugar. 
A  simple  experiment  illustrates  perfectly  what  goes  on  in  the 
ground.  Take  a  lump  of  sugar,  lay  on  top  a  pinch  of  pow- 
dered sugar,  and  dip  its  lower  end  in  water.  The  water  will 
creep  up  through  the  lump,  but  no  farther.  Even  after  the 
lump  is  saturated  and  has  begun  to  dissolve,  the  powdered 
sugar  remains  dry.  Color  the  water,  and  its  progress  is  even 
more  noticeable. 

.  This  stirring  process  is  technically  known  as  cultivation. 
Its  value  to  the  garden  cannot  be  overestimated.  Through 
its  practice  three  important  things  are  accomplished  :  It  kills 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


the  weeds,  to  begin  with  ;  then  it  keeps  in  the  moisture  ;  and, 
besides,  it  airs  the  soil.  So,  since  the  roots  of  plants  cannot 
work  without  oxygen  any  more  than  their  green  parts  can,  it 
is  well  to  "  stir  some  "  into  the  soil. 

On  farms  the  work  of  cultivation  is  so  extensive  that  it 
must  be  done  by  horse  power.  For  small  fields  a  wheel  hoe 
or  cultivator  is  used,  which  runs  handily  between  the  rows. 

A  children's  garden 
is  kept  well  groomed, 
as  it  were,  by  an 
excelsior  weeder  or 
even  a  skewer,  sup- 
plemented from  time 
to  time  by  the  deeper 
stroke  of  the  hoe. 
The  expression  "wa- 
tering with  the  hoe" 
is  a  common  one 
and,  after  what  has 
been  said,  needs  no 
explanation.  A  mat- 
ter for  congratulation 
is  that  the  practice  of 
cultivation,  or  dry  farming,  as  it  is  practiced  to-day,  relieves 
the  gardener  of  what  has  always  been  a  perfect  nightmare  to 
him,  —  a  season  of  drought.  It  may  be  added  that  abnormally 
arid  districts  should  hardly  be  selected  to  illustrate  the  advan- 
tages of  dry  farming.  After  all,  the  whole  philosophy  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  gospel  of  the  parson  who,  urged  by  his 
congregation,  prayed  fervently  for  rain,  but  who  closed  his 
petition  thus  :  "  Send  us,  we  beseech  thee,  rain  ;  and  yet,  O 
Lord,  thou  knowest  that  what  we  really  need  is  not  more  rain 
but  better  plowing,  deeper  tillage,  and  more  top-dressing." 


GUMPTION 


THE  ART  OF  MAKING  THINGS  GROW 


103 


Understanding  the  science  of  watering,  and  applying  it 
in  action,  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  our  old  friends  the 
watering  pot  and  the  hose  must  be  laid  on  the  shelf.  Indeed 
they  still  retain  their  places.  But  a  beginner  sets  far  too  high 
a  value  upon  them.  What  is  more,  he  does  not  use  them 
properly.  A  "greenhorn"  betrays  himself  at  the  first  garden 
lesson  by  the  way  he 
handles  these  articles. 
We  have  all  seen  him 
as  he  stands  at  noon- 
day in  July  compla- 
cently sprinkling  his 
poor  little  half-burnt 
greens,  sublimely  un- 
conscious of  the  fact 
that  the  rivulets  are 
trickling  off  into  the 
paths  instead  of  sink- 
ing down  into  the 
earth. 

One  of  the  best 
children's  gardens  I 
know  owes  its  suc- 
cess, after  an  excep- 
tionally dry  season, 
to  the  constant  and  thorough  cultivating  which  it  received, 
and  to  the  exclusion  of  surface  watering.  "  No  water  was 
available,"  says  the  director,  "but  the  gardens,  although  on 
a  sunny  slope,  withstood  the  droughts  well,  save  in  a  few 
neglected  plots.  These  furnish  a  forcible  illustration  of  the 
value  of  cultivation  for  the  conservation  of  the  moisture  in 
the  soil."1 

1  Miss  Grace  L.  Sturtevant,  Wellesley  Townsman,  October,  1908. 


A    GOOD    LONG    DRAUGHT 


104  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

An  inexorable  garden  law  is,  Never  sprinkle.  What  the 
earth  craves  is  a  thorough  soaking,  so  that  the  moisture  will 
sink  down  far  below  the  roots.  The  time  to  water  is  early  in 
the  morning  or  in  the  evening,  not  in  the  blazing  sun  ;  so 
goes  the  good  old  rule.  An  expert  gardener,  however,  who 
is  less  bound  by  tradition,  writes  :  "  Water  at  any  time  that 
the  plants  need  it,  only  water  thoroughly.  When  I  am  told 
that  watering  under  a  noonday  sun  will  burn  up  my  plants, 
I  answer  that  my  plants  will  certainly  burn  up  if  I  do  not 
water  them."  This  piece  of  advice  is  certainly  comforting  to 
the  school  gardener,  who  may  live  some  distance  away  and 
who  often  finds  it  impossible  to  devote  early  morning  or 
sunset  hours  to  the  work.  The  point,  however,  upon  which 
everybody  agrees  seems  to  be  that  the  wet  surface  must  be 
promptly  mulched  with  dry  earth. 

The  mulch  so  often  spoken  of  should  be  spread  not  only 
over  newly  planted  ground  but  around  plants  at  all  stages  of 
their  growth.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  mulch  put  at 
the  base  of  young  shrubs  or  trees  consists  of  sawdust  or  coal 
ashes.  Weeds  would  certainly  find  cold  comfort  in  a  mulch 
like  this.  In  truth,  such  materials  are  pretty  nearly  weed 
proof.  Whatever  the  substance,  however,  the  purpose  is 
always  to  keep  the  soil  in  prime  condition,  ready  for  taking 
in  moisture  but  not  for  parting  with  it. 

In  connection  with  watering,  a  word  may  be  said  in  favor 
of  a  plant  tonic  which  gives  excellent  results  and  yet  costs 
nothing.  This  is  a  liquid  preparation  of  ordinary  street  ma- 
nure, which  is  put  into  a  jar  or  tub  and  covered  with  boiling 
water ;  after  cooling,  it  is  thinned  to  the  color  of  tea  and 
used  freely  for  watering.  Under  this  treatment,  plants  shoot 
up  quickly  and  vigorously. 

Irrigation,  as  we  know,  is  the  wonderful  means  by  which 
farm  lands  are  made  independent  of  rainfall  by  being  supplied 


THE  ART  OF  MAKING  THINGS  GROW  105 

with  water  in  trenches.  It  is  not  so  modern  a  method  as  some 
are  apt  to  think ;  indeed,  it  seems  to  have  been  well  under- 
stood far  back  in  early  Babylonian  times.  The  way  in  which 
vast  tracts  of  country  in  the  great  West,  as  well  as  in  foreign 
countries,  have  thus  been  made  richly  productive  is  little  short 
of  miraculous.  By  irrigation  deserts  have  been  transformed 
into  veritable  gardens  of  Eden.  By  dint  of  courage  and  skill 
men  have  learned  to  harness  up  streams  of  water,  and  to 
drive  them  at  will  through  pipes  and  ditches  for  the  service 
of  mankind.  In  Italy,  near  Milan,  there  is  a  famous  example 
of  how  thousands  of  acres  have  been  reclaimed  by  means  of 
water  conveyed  by  irrigation  from  the  sewers  of  the  city. 
These  meadows  were  but  yesterday  desolate  wastes  ;  now, 
quickened  into  life,  they  yield  from  three  to  nine  times  the 
crop  of  ordinary  fields. 

Fortunately  the  reclaiming  of  waste  lands  is  to-day,  as  never 
before,  attracting  attention.  Among  these  are  dunes,  salt 
marshes,  and  barren  islands.  Marthas  Vineyard  is  a  good 
example  of  a  hitherto  neglected  opportunity.  At  present  the 
chief  occupation  on  the  island  is  shooting.  The  cultivation 
has  been  meager,  so  that  nearly  all  supplies  are  brought  by 
boats  from  the  mainland,  and  yet  there  are  ponds  lying  in 
the  southeast  portion  of  the  island  which  could  easily  be  used 
as  a  basis  for  irrigation.  It  is  certain  that  irrigation,  com- 
bined with  the  wonderful  climate,  would  make  of  this  island 
a  second  Jersey  or  Guernsey. 

Of  course  a  young  farmer  who  lives  near  a  town  or  city 
and  has  the  water  department  and  a  few  feet  of  hose  at 
his  command  will  hardly  need  to  adopt  any  system  of  irriga- 
tion in  order  to  save  his  small  domain  from  the  perils  of 
drought.  Even  so,  why  not  test  for  one's  self  the  benefits 
of  a  new  scheme,  which,  it  is  claimed,  will  more  than  treble 
the  old  returns  ?  As  a  matter  of  fact,  within  a  very  short  time 


106  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

experiments  in  irrigation  have  been  tried  in  small  gardens 
and  have  given  such  splendid  results  that  even  for  tiny  spaces 
the  method  is  becoming  more  and  more  popular.  In  one  city 
yard  a  clever  arrangement  of  draintiles  was  devised  by  some 
girls  at  home  to  secure  water  control.  Even  though  so  roughly 
carried  out,  they  considered  the  attempt  a  success ;  but  at 
last  accounts  they  were  still  at  work  trying  to  improve  their 
scheme.  Such  adventures  help  other  explorers.  Moreover, 
they  train  a  person's  intelligence  and  fit  him  to  comprehend 
the  big  present-day  problems  of  our  wonderful  country. 

When  it  comes  to  transplanting,  success  is  largely  depend- 
ent upon  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  watering.  Any 
one  can  go  through  the  motions  of  transplanting,  but  few  can 
make  every  plant  grow.  The  morning  after  is  apt  to  reveal 
many  a  flat  failure.  Young  gardeners  who  have  sometimes 
met  with  poor  luck  will  welcome  a  few  practical  hints.  Begin 
the  process  by  removing  each  plant  with  as  large  a  ball  of 
earth  around  its  roots  as  possible.  Trim  off  about  one  third 
of  the  top,  so  as  to  diminish  the  leaf  surface  and  thus  check 
evaporation.  Set  it  well  into  the  damp  earth,  spreading  care- 
fully any  rootlets  that  straggle.  Fill  in  now  with  earth  and 
pack  the  whole  down  well ;  the  plant  should  not  loosen  at 
a  gentle  pull.  Give  it  a  sip  of  water  at  this  crisis,  if  it  looks 
thirsty.  If  this  is  a  case  where  growth  is  to  be  hurried  along, 
the  water  used  may  be  some  form  of  liquid  manure  or  a  solu- 
tion of -nitrate  of  soda.  Add  as  the  finishing  touch  a  covering 
of  mulch.  A  young  seedling  is  usually  old  enough  to  trans- 
plant when  it  has  attained  the  dignity  of  from  four  to  six  leaves. 

Do  not  be  tempted  to  transplant  in  the  open  sunshine  ;  as 
sure  as  fate  the  sun  will  evaporate  the  water  through  the 
leaves  before  the  roots  get  into  working  order.  The  best  time 
for  transplanting,  as  for  watering,  is  in  the  early  evening  or  on 
a  cloudy  day ;  but  busy  folks  cannot  always  choose,  and  plants 


THE  ART  OF  MAKING  THINGS  GROW 


107 


cannot  always  wait,  so  if  a  gardener  is  forced  to  do  this 
when  the  sun  is  high,  he  may  be  consoled  by  remembering 
that  there  is  always  "some  way  out."  It  is  quite  an  easy 


TRANSPLANTED 


matter  to  supply  sunshades  for  the  newly  transplanted  seed- 
lings ;  an  inverted  flowerpot  will  answer.  Children  frequently 
make  cocked  hats  out  of  paper  or  pasteboard,  which  can  be 
held  in  place  by  pegs  or  by  a  couple  of  clothespins.  Even  a 


108  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

shingle  stuck  in  the  ground  on  the  sunny  side  of  a  plant  will 
cast  grateful  shade,  to  which  it  may  owe  its  life.  In  a  word, 
use  every  ingenious  means  that  suggests  itself  to  guard  against 
the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation  between  the  time  of  tak- 
ing up  a  plant  and  that  of  resetting  it.  Few  realize  that  little 
seedlings  get  limp  by  sheer  exposure  to  the  wind.  Lay  over 
them,  therefore,  a  dampened  cloth  as  they  lie  waiting  in  the 
heat  or  in  a  draft. 

There  is  a  noticeable  difference  in  the  ability  of  plants  to 
stand  the  shock  of  a  change  in  position.  Tomatoes,  cabbages, 
and  lettuce  are  among  those  sturdy  ones  that  may  be  depended 
upon  to  transplant  well.  Tomato  seedlings  lead  a  charmed 
life,  —  you  simply  cannot  kill  them ;  but  other  plants,  such 
as  the  cucumber,  squash,  pea,  and  morning-glory  stubbornly 
refuse  to  prosper.  Nevertheless,  even  these  capricious  plants 
will  sometimes  yield  to  coaxing,  provided  they  have  been 
started  in  some  small  receptacle  like  a  berry  basket  or  paper 
flowerpot,  which  can  be  broken  away  without  wrenching  their 
systems.  A  class  of  children  one  year  started  some  lettuce  seed 
in  eggshells.  These  fragile  cradles,  though  so  tiny,  proved 
in  every  way  satisfactory,  for  a  gentle  squeeze  was  enough 
to  crush  the  shell  as  the  plant  was  being  introduced  into  its 
new  home.  Was  it  not  the  custom  of  Mrs.  Thaxter,  the 
ardent  friend  of  children  and  of  flowers,  to  raise  in  eggshells 
the  seeds  for  that  beloved  garden  of  hers  at  Appledore  ? 

Shrubs  and  trees  should  be  transplanted  according  to  the 
principles  just  described,  except  that  the  season  for  their  re- 
moval is  restricted  to  autumn  and  spring.  Stout  roots  cannot 
be  torn  from  their  home  at  the  height  of  their  activity  and 
still  live  ;  but  after  the  period  of  active  service  is  over  for  the 
year,  or  before  it  begins,  if  treated  kindly  they  will  not  suffer, 

As  for  small  fruits,  a  strawberry  bed  is  most  practical, 
while  currant,  gooseberry,  and  raspberry  make  themselves 


THE  ART  OF  MAKING  THINGS  GROW 


109 


perfectly  at  home  in  school  gardens.  One  or  two  plants  of 
each  kind  are  enough  to  practice  upon  if  lack  of  room  pre- 
vents having  more.  Every  one  of  these  shrubs,  however, 
rebels  against  shiftlessness  and  will  not  put  up  with  neglect. 
Space  must  also  be  saved  for  a  few  fruit  trees.  Nobody  can 
be  blind  to  the  ad- 
vance that  is  being 
made  every  year  in 
the  abundance  and 
perfection  of  Amer- 
ican fruit.  Much  of 
our  best  fruit  is  sent 
across  the  water,  and 
our  fruit  farms  are 
the  admiration  of  vis- 
itors from  abroad.  A 
miniature  orchard  will 
give  young  people  a 
chance  to  learn  some 
of  the  secrets  of  prac- 
tical, up-to-date  fruit 
culture. 

The  nurseryman 
sets  out  his  trees  and 
shrubs  early  in  April. 
Accordingly,  by  that 
time  the  trenches 
must  be  ready  and  waiting.  A  little  tree  requires  a  trench  at 
least  three  feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep.  The  gardener  be- 
gins by  filling  the  bottom  of  the  trench  with  earth ;  this  he 
fairly  saturates  with  water.  Next  he  brings  out  one  by  one 
the  treelings,  whose  roots  during  transportation  have  been 
kept  so  carefully  wrapped  in  damp  matting  or  straw.  They 


A    FUTURE    ORCHARDIST 


1 10  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

should  be  given  more  water  at  intervals  as  they  are  being  set 
into  place.  When  the  trench  is  filled,  he  treads  down  the 
earth  with  his  whole  weight ;  and  when  all  this  is  done,  he 
mulches  the  plants  with  straw  or  leaves.  As  soon  as  time 
permits,  the  branches  must  be  trimmed.  It  will  not  do  to 
make  the  mistake  of  pruning  in  summer  when  the  sap  is 
moving ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  an  evergreen 
tree  cannot  be  pruned  oftener  than  once  a  year,  and  that 
in  the  spring. 

Every  one  speaks  a  good  word  for  shrubs.  For  purposes 
of  decoration  they  will  be  set  out  either  singly  or  in  clumps, 
seldom  in  rows.  They  will  act,  too,  as  a  windbreak  for  some 
bed  of  tender  plants.  Again,  they  may  be  set  out  in  order 
to  give  a  bit  of  seclusion  to  one  corner  of  the  garden.  A 
hedge  of  flowering  shrubs  proves  the  neighborhood's  delight. 
The  only  difficulty  is  in  choosing  from  such  a  great  variety 
as  is  offered.  All  gardeners  have  their  favorites.  Some  sing 
the  praises  of  the  Japanese  quince,  which  certainly  does  border 
a  garden  charmingly.  Others  think  nothing  equal  to  the  Tar- 
tarian honeysuckle,  especially  the  lovely  pink  flowering  sort, 
and  it  is  true  that,  whether  in  blossom  or  in  berry,  it  is  always 
superb.  Forsythia  finds  favor  as  a  hedge  ;  the  plant  keeps  its 
leaves  till  cold  weather.  It  pays  a  garden  maker  to  study  how 
to  mass  shrubs  so  as  to  secure  happy  effects.  Not  everybody 
can  paint  pictures.  Fortunately,  those  who  can  use  a  brush 
and  colors  are  not  the  only  artists  in  the  world  ;  some  persons 
truly  succeed  in  becoming  "artists  in  things."  Many  a  person 
can  educate  himself  to  be  such  an  artist ;  by  watching  colors, 
forms,  and  shadows  he  can  really  create  beauty  in  a  garden  by 
means  of  his  plants. 

When  all  is  said,  it  may  still  seem  as  though  some  per- 
sons were  wizards  in  the  sense  that  they  can  stick  anything 
into  the  ground  and  make  it  flourish.  Perpetual  good  luck, 


THE  ART  OF  MAKING  THINGS  GROW  in 

however,  does  not  visit  any  garden  by  mere  chance ;  to  a 
discerning  person  it  is  clear  that  success  comes  to  those 
gardeners  who  make  much  of  their  children.  Plants  grow 
for  those  who  love  them  ;  they  fully  appreciate  petting.  They 
cannot  purr,  indeed,  but  they  respond  gratefully  with  blos- 
soms and  fruit.  A  watchful  eye,  constant  care,  —  in  a  word, 
devotion  to  their  needs,  —  is  the  magic  touch  which  makes 
things  grow. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

JUST  HOW 
There  is  a  best  way  of  doing  everything  if  it  be  to  boil  an  egg.  —  EMERSON 

This  is  the  title  of  a  little  cookbook  which  was  published 
in  the  early  seventies.  It  was  the  first  of  many  primers  of 
cooking  designed  for  the  young  housekeeper  who  was  para- 
lyzed by  the  elaborate  recipes  that  weighed  down  the  pon- 
derous volumes  of  that  day.  To  the  inexperienced  young 
cook  who  did  not  aspire  to  such  creations  as,  for  instance, 
the  Duke  of  Portland  plum  cake,  this  book  proved  a  -real 
godsend.  It  condescended  to  explain  how  to  beat  an  egg, 
(there  is,  it  appears,  a  best  way  to  beat  an  egg,  as  well  as 
to  boil  one)  and  how  to  make  dip  toast.  By  the  time  she  had 
"  passed  her  preliminaries  "  by  the  aid  of  this  modest  volume, 
the  young  housekeeper  had  acquired  enough  skill  and  confi- 
dence to  advance  by  sure  and  easy  steps  to  higher  triumphs 
in  the  culinary  art. 

This  chapter  undertakes  much  the  same  mission  in  its  own 
small  field,  which  is  to  explain  in  minute  detail  certain  well- 
tried  recipes  for  raising  a  few  common  vegetables.  It  is  true 
that  library  shelves  are  filled  to  overflowing  with  manuals  on 
gardening,  and  every  packet  of  seeds  is  covered  with  direc- 
tions ;  but  these  directions,  while  plain  enough  for  the  experi- 
enced, have  often  been  the  despair  of  the  beginner.  For  is 
there  a  beginner  who  does  not  occasionally  long  to  have  an  old 
gardener  standing  at  his  elbow,  reminding  him  by  a  friendly 
word  not  only  what  to  do,  but,  —  far  more  to  the  purpose,  — 

112 


JUST  HOW  113 

what  not  to  do  ?  Having  once  succeeded  in  bringing  to  per- 
fection his  first  ten  vegetables,  a  novice  learns  to  interpret 
many  signs  in  the  life  of  plants  to  which  he  was  blind  before. 
There  is  no  reason  why  the  ten  vegetables  here  discussed 
should  not  be  successfully  grown  during  a  garden's  first  year. 
Even  a  still  larger  number  could  of  course  be  tried,  but  too 
little  rather  than  too  much  is  always  a  safe  rule. 

Beans.  There  is  no  more  wholesome  and  popular  vege- 
table than  beans  ;  a  plentiful  supply  should  be  raised  in  every- 
body's garden.  There  are  ever  so  many  varieties  ;  among  the 
commonest  are  string  beans  or  snap  beans,  —  the  entire  pod 
being  edible,  —  besides  wax,  Lima,  and  pole  beans.  The  scar- 
let runner  is  also  a  pole  bean  and  is  often  grown  as  an  orna- 
mental vine,  but  its  beans  are  desirable  as  shell  beans.  Almost 
all  kinds  of  beans  are  now  raised  in  dwarf  varieties.  The 
following  hints  are  applicable  to  their  culture  in  general. 

Beans  are,  on  the  whole,  hardy  and  easily  grown.  The  only 
possibility  of  failure  would  lie  in  planting  the  seed  before  the 
soil  is  warm  and  dry,  for  beans  are  warm- weather  thrivers. 
In  the  north  the  middle  of  May  is  early  enough.  They  like 
rich,  moist  soil,  in  contrast  to  a  poor  and  shallow  one,  and 
need  every  ray  of  sunshine  they  can  get.  Give  them  always 
an  abundance  of  light  and  air ;  plenty  of  moisture  too  has- 
tens growth.  This  method  makes  the  beans  deliciously  crisp  ; 
grown  slowly,  they  are  likely  to  be  tough  and  tasteless.  The 
pods  should  be  ready  to  gather  in  twelve  or  fourteen  weeks. 
There  can  be  several  plantings.  The  first  three  can  be  made 
on  ground  from  which  there  has  been  harvested  spinach,  early 
radishes,  or  lettuce  ;  after  that,  on  ground  from  which  there 
will  have  been  taken  peas,  potatoes,  and  beets.  If  the  school 
gardener  can  raise  only  one  sort  of  bean,  let  it  be  string  beans 
by  preference,  though  it  would  even  then  be  instructive  to 
ripen  a  few  shell  beans. 


114  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

Beans  belong  to  the  family  of  legumes  ;  so,  as  may  be 
guessed,  they  are  nitrogen  gatherers.  Consequently  they  are 
best  stimulated  by  a  fertilizer  that  contains  little  or  no  nitro- 
gen but  chiefly  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Their  greatest 
enemy  is  rust,  a  fungous  disease.  This  is  troublesome  at  damp 
seasons ;  therefore  be  careful  not  to  brush  against  the  vines 
when  they  are  wet,  lest  the  tiny  fungus  should  be  sown  on 
the  leaves.  Pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  plants  if  they  are  grow- 
ing too  fast,  so  that  their  strength  shall  not  run  to  foliage. 

The  bean  chosen  for  baking  is  a  variety  of  pea  bean.  It  is 
prepared  for  the  market  by  a  special  process.  When  appear- 
ing on  the  table  after  hours  of  slow  cooking,  a  dish  of  Boston 
baked  beans  should  be  about  the  color  of  a  horse  chestnut, 
and  of  a  mealy  consistency,  although  each  bean  keeps  its 
own  distinct  shape. 

Beans,  both  shell  and  string,  are  commonly  boiled.  Beans 
that  are  boiled  are  served  with  a  seasoning  of  salt,  pepper,  and 
butter,  or  covered  with  a  cream  sauce.  Cold  boiled  beans 
make  a  delicious  salad.  They  should  never  be  put  on  to  cook 
in  tepid  water,  but,  to  keep  their  flavor,  they  must  be  covered 
with  boiling  salted  water. 

Beets.  Beets  are  grown  for  two  purposes  :  for  their  tops, 
which  make  tender  greens,  and  for  their  thickened  roots.  They 
are  hardy  and  of  easy  culture.  Turnip  beet  tops  will  mature 
in  two  months  or  less,  and  the  little  new  beets  are  ready  by 
midsummer.  The  soil  should  be  rich  and  light. 

Beet  seed  should  be  scattered  thinly  in  drills  a  foot  apart. 
These  so-called  seeds  are  really  fruits  containing  several  true 
seeds,  so  that  the  plantlets  come  up  in  queer  little  clumps. 
This  explains  why  they  require  special  thinning.  Sow  seeds  as 
early  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  and  again  every  two  weeks 
up  to  the  end  of  July.  The  depth  for  planting  in  the  spring 
is  one  inch.  Constant  cultivation  is  necessary  for  a  good  crop. 


JUST  HOW  115 

Beets  do  best  when  thinned  twice.  Thin  first  when  the 
plants  are  about  five  inches  high,  or  even  less,  leaving  spaces 
of  three  inches.  The  second  thinning  leaves  a  distance  of 
about  six  inches.  These  seedlings  will  be  used  as  greens.  At 
the  second  thinning,  young  beet  roots  will  be  pulled  up  as 
well.  These  whole  plants  are  therefore  served  as  greens ;  it 
is  hardly  worth  while  to  transplant  the  thinnings.  Beets  are 
subject  to  scab  on  the  roots  and  to  rust  on  the  leaves. 

Table  beets  may  be  boiled,  stewed,  creamed,  or  pickled.  In 
boiling,  be  sure  not  to  break  the  skin.  Put  them  into  boiling 
water  and  cook  slowly  for  one  hour ;  then  drain  and  the 
skins  will  slip  off.  These  boiled  beets  are  to  be  sliced  and 
seasoned  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.  They  make,  too,  a 
favorite  pickle. 

Cabbage.  Cabbage  makes  an  excellent  and  wholesome  food. 
It  is  widely  appreciated  too.  Market  quotations  show  that 
thousands  of  tons  of  cabbages  are  consumed  every  week  in  a 
great  city  like  New  York.  It  is  said  that  nobody  knows  what 
a  delicious  flavor  a  cabbage  may  have  until  he  picks  one 
fresh  out  of  his  own  garden.  A  gardener,  if  he  likes,  can  have 
a  supply  of  cabbages  the  whole  year  through.  To  raise  very 
early  cabbages,  plant  seeds  indoors  in  February.  Prevent  them 
from  growing  tall  and  spindling  by  giving  extra  sunshine  and 
by  pinching  them  back.  In  the  cold  frame,  seed  for  a  second 
lot  may  be  planted  as  early  as  April,  provided  it  is  sheltered ; 
by  the  end  of  June  the  seedlings  will  have  grown  large  enough 
to  set  out.  These  ripen  by  November.  Still  a  later  variety 
can  be  set  out  in  July.  In  a  small  garden,  where  space  is 
precious,  it  is  advisable  to  choose  the  late  cabbages.  Then 
other  vegetables  will  have  had  their  chance,  and  the  cabbages 
may  take  all  the  room  they  please.  Such  handsome  ones  as 
the  expert  likes  to  produce  cannot  ripen  properly  nearer  to- 
gether than  two  feet.  In  case  the  seed  is  sown  out  of  doors, 


Il6  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

the  distance  between  drills  should  not  be  less  than  ten  or 
twelve  inches.  One  foot  of  drill  will  give  about  two  dozen 
seedlings.  Seeds  are  planted  one-half  inch  deep. 

When  the  seedlings  are  ready  for  transplanting,  pinch  back 
the  leaves,  for  it  is  necessary  that  the  roots  should  get  estab- 
lished as  soon  as  possible.  Do  not  hurt  the  central  shoot,  for 
that  would  spoil  the  leafy  head.  Set  each  plant  in  a  little 
deeper  than  it  stood  before,  so  that  it  will  not  topple  over 
from  its  own  weight. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  cabbage  :  red,  smooth,  and 
wrinkled.  The  picturesque  purple  cabbage  fields  that  one 
remembers  seeing  everywhere  in  France  are  made  up  of  the 
red.  The  smooth  are  most  common  in  our  country,  though 
the  wrinkled  are  said  to  have  the  finest  flavor.  All  varieties 
call  for  generous  manuring.  Poultry  manure  may  be  used  in 
part.  More  than  most  vegetables,  cabbages  need  patient  cul- 
ture, so  that  they  may  be  supplied  with  steady  moisture. 

Cabbage  enemies  are  numerous.  The  most  disagreeable 
ones  are  the  cabbage  worm,  the  loopers,  and  the  flea  beetle. 
There  are,  besides,  two  mischievous  fungi  that  attack  it :  black 
rot  and  club  root.  The  insects  must  be  picked  off  or  sprayed 
with  poison.  Watch  especially  for  the  pretty  but  dangerous 
little  cabbage  butterfly.  As  to  the  fungi,  if  they  persist  they 
must  simply  be  starved  out ;  so  burn  all  the  leaves  that  show 
the  fatal  signs.  Burn  whole  cabbages  if  necessary.  Examine 
every  plant  carefully  before  storing  for  the  winter.  Cabbages 
are  amazingly  hardy;  they  need  not  be  stored  earlier  than 
Thanksgiving.  Then  pack  them  in  a  shallow  trench  lined 
and  covered  with  hay,  and  pile  on  some  earth. 

Americans  have  much  to  learn  from  cooks  in  other  coun- 
tries about  the  use  of  cabbages,  particularly  from  the  Ger- 
mans, whose  bill  of  fare  is  hardly  complete  without  some 
cabbage  dish.  They  have  many  recipes  which  can  easily  be 


JUST  HOW  II/ 

obtained.  The  famous  sauerkraut  is  probably  the  best  known, 
and  to  most  Germans  it  is  unexcelled.  There  are  also  cab- 
bage pickles  in  great  variety,  besides  cold  slaw  or  a  salad 
made  of  the  leaves  finely  shaved  and  served  with  a  dress- 
ing which,  by  the  way,  is  improved  by  plenty  of  mustard. 
There  must  not  be  forgotten,  besides,  the  plain,  homely, 
workaday  boiled  cabbage  which  is  always  welcomed  by  a 
hearty  appetite. 

The  student  of  botany  will  find  it  a  good  plan  to  allow 
one  or  two  cabbage  heads  to  last  over  till  the  second  season, 
in  order  to  collect  some  of  the  seeds  that  are  developed  in 
the  yellow  flowers  borne  in  a  tall  flower  stalk  three  or  four 
feet  high. 

The  cabbage  tribe  is  a  large  and  most  important  one.  All 
the  branches  of  the  family,  produced  as  they  have  been  by 
careful  cultivation,  are  worthy  of  attention.  Each  has  its  own 
distinctive  characteristic  as  an  article  of  diet.  Cauliflower  has 
perhaps  attained  the  most  delicacy.  Who,  by  the  way,  has 
spoken  of  it  as  "cabbage  with  a  college  education"  ? 

Carrots.  In  England  and  France  carrots  frequently  appear 
on  the  table  and  are  esteemed  so  highly  that  they  are  often 
grown  under  glass.  Their  virtues  are  becoming  every  day 
better  appreciated  in  America.  Carrots  and  parsnips  require 
about  the  same  treatment  and  are  often  planted  at  the  same 
time,  although  the  carrots  are  harvested  first.  They  are  very 
hardy  and  attract  almost  no  insect  or  fungus  enemies. 

The  earth  should  be  dug  deep,  for  carrots  have  long  roots  ; 
sow  seed  thick  and  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible,  planting 
it  one-half  inch  deep  in  rows  about  one  foot  apart.  It  grows 
very  slowly,  so  that  a  crop  of  radishes  may  be  sown  on  top 
and  skimmed  off  the  ground,  as  it  were,  before  the  carrots 
need  the  space.  In  fact,  radishes  actually  help  the  growth 
of  carrots,  since  they  break  the  soil  for  this  slower  crop. 


Il8  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

Keep  the  bed  of  carrots  free  from  weeds,  so  gardeners  say  ; 
therefore  cultivate  carefully  and  do  not  let  the  earth  harden. 
Thin  to  a  distance  of  four  inches.  This  spring  sowing  will 
secure  early  carrots  in  June.  Late  carrots  are  sown  at  the 
end  of  May  or  early  in  June,  and  these  will  keep  through  the 


SELECTING    FOR    MARKET 

winter,  either  in  sand  in  the  cellar  or  in  pits  in  the  garden. 
These  early  carrots,  however,  must  not  be  expected  to  last 
through  the  winter. 

Young  carrots  are  appetizingly  prepared  in  this  way  :  Boil 
in  salted  water  till  tender,  drain,  and  serve  with  drawn  butter. 
If  you  please,  they  may  be  cut  into  dice.  They  are  sometimes 
served  acceptably  with  peas  ;  the  contrasting  colors  certainly 
make  a  pretty  combination.  The  carrot  leaf  is  finely  cut,  of  a 
lovely  bright  green,  and  it  can  garnish  a  dish  very  effectively. 
Some  persons  enjoy  pickled  carrot. 

Lettuce.  Lettuce  is  perhaps  the  favorite  vegetable  for  a 
small  garden.  It  is  coming  more  -and  more  into  demand. 


JUST  HOW  119 

There  are  two  main  types  :  one  tall  and  narrow,  the  cos ;  and 
the  other  low  and  spreading,  the  cabbage.  It  is  a  sturdy  plant, 
and  it  can  be  planted  as  a  companion  for  some  other  crop  — 
radish,  for  instance  —  or  as  a  succession  crop.  Seedsmen  dis- 
tinguish between  white-  and  black-seeded  lettuce  ;  the  former 
is  grown  chiefly  by  forcing,  the  latter,  out  of  doors. 

The  earliest  crop  of  lettuce  is  always  started  within  doors, 
and  is  either  set  in  the  ground  or  allowed  to  mature  in  glass 
frames  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  any  sort  of  condition 
for  planting,  the  first  outdoor  sowing  may  be  made.  Lettuce 
transplants  well ;  manure  is  its  best  fertilizer ;  its  pests  and 
diseases  fortunately  cause  gardeners  very  little  worry. 

Lettuce  will  grow  obligingly  in  any  good  garden  soil,  but 
the  best  results  are  to  be  had  with  earth  that  is  light,  warm, 
and  quick. 

Under  glass  or  in  the  house  sow  lettuce  in  drills  a  few 
inches  apart ;  prick  out,  when  the  second  leaves  appear,  to 
four  inches  apart.  Repeat  this  as  often  as  it  seems  neces- 
sary, until  the  plants  stand  about  one  foot  apart.  The  depth 
for  lettuce  seed  under  glass  is  one- quarter  inch,  and  in  the 
open,  one- half  inch. 

Here  are  some  special  hints  for  the  raising  of  lettuce  :  Cul- 
tivate constantly  and  keep  the  leaves  free  of  earth.  Be  care- 
ful not  to  hoe  against  the  plants  so  as  to  mar  the  leaves,  and 
do  not  let  any  fertilizer  touch  them.  The  cos  lettuce  must 
have  its  leaves  drawn  up  and  tied  at  the  top  in  order  to  blanch 
the  hearts. 

Pick  the  crop  as  needed.  It  is  best  done  in  the  early  morn- 
ing, while  the  leaves  are  crisp  and  before  the  sun  has  had  a 
chance  to  wilt  them  ;  then  place  the  plant  in  a  cool,  dark 
place,  with  its  stem  in  water.  An  hour  or  so  before  serving,  the 
leaves  should  be  pulled  apart  and  washed  thoroughly  in  cold 
water.  After  the  water  has  been  well  shaken  off,  the  plant 


120  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

should  be  tossed  about  for  a  moment  in  a  piece  of  cheese- 
cloth or  mosquito  netting.  Then  lay  it  directly  on  the  ice. 
The  delicious  crispness  and  coolness  of  prime  lettuce  can- 
not be  equaled ;  indeed,  its  food  value  lies  largely  in  its 
refreshing  qualities.  Lettuce  is  the  chief  constituent  of  most 
salads  ;  eaten  with  an  oil  dressing  and  a  dash  of  vinegar, 
not  too  much,  it  is  considered  most  wholesome.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  lettuce  which  are  now  only  slightly  known 
in  America,  but  which  could  easily  become  popular ;  their 
flavor,  according  to  the  taste  of  many  persons,  is  superior. 

Onions.  Onions  have  the  name  of  being  one  of  the  best 
stimulant  vegetables  known;  they  deserve  to  be  even  better 
appreciated  than  they  are.  Onions  are  bulbs  ;  they  may  be 
grown  from  the  seed  or  from  onion  sets.  Sets  are  baby  onions, 
formed  by  division  of  the  parent  bulb.  Growing  onions  from 
the  seed  requires  very  careful  handling,  for  the  seedlings  are 
mere  wisps  ;  this  makes  prompt  cultivation  most  important, 
because  if  weeds  once  get  the  right  of  way,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  kill  them.  In  this  case  a  steel  rake  loosens  the  earth 
well,  for  it  allows  the  seedlings  to  pass  between  its  teeth.  Seeds 
may  be  sown  in  a  box  indoors  in  January  or  February.  The 
plants  must  then  be  pricked  out  into  deeper  boxes  and  finally 
planted  in  rich,  firm  ground  at  the  end  of  April.  They  will 
be  ready  for  harvesting  by  the  end  of  August,  when  they 
should  be  drawn  from  the  ground  and  thoroughly  sunned. 

A  more  satisfactory  method,  however,  is  to  plant  the  sets. 
The  first  year  they  can  be  purchased  from  seedsmen.  Onion 
sets  should  be  put  into  the  ground  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment,  and  the  bed  reserved  for  them  must  be  as  richly 
prepared  as  possible.  Well-rotted  manure,  poultry  drop- 
pings, bone  meal,  and  wood  ashes  are  sometimes  all  dug  in 
together.  Plant  the  sets  in  rows  about  six  inches  apart. 
Put  them  in  just  deep  enough  for  the  green  top  to  show 


JUST  HOW  121 

above  the  surface ;  then  firm  them  well.  This  is  the  way 
to  get  early  onions,  a  real  spring  treat. 

Root  maggot  is  the  most  troublesome  enemy  of  the  onion, 
but  it  is  also  attacked  by  leaf  blight  and  smut.  Any  part 
that  becomes  affected  by  these  parasites  should  at  once  be 
removed  and  burned. 

The  unintelligent  cooking  of  onions  is  partly  responsible 
for  their  unpopularity.  Onions  contain  a  volatile  sulphurous 
oil  which  will  in  a  measure  disappear  if  this  rule  is  followed 
in  preparing  them :  Wash  them,  cover  with  boiling  water, 
then  cover  tightly  and  boil  for  ten  minutes  ;  drain,  cover 
again  with  fresh  boiling  water,  repeating  this  process  twice 
more,  making  four  times  in  all ;  add  a  little  salt  and  boil  till 
tender,  keeping  them  covered  all  the  time.  When  finished 
they  should  be  dressed  with  a  cream  sauce. 

Parsley.  Parsley  is  a  dainty  little  plant,  grown  for  its  curly 
leaves.  These  are  used  for  garnishing  and  for  seasoning, 
and  occasionally  in  salads.  One  curious  thing  about  growing 
parsley  is  that  a  person  may  easily  be  deceived  as  to  the 
success  of  the  seeds  planted,  for  they  are  extremely  slow  in 
germinating.  Sometimes  after  their  coming  up  has  been  de- 
spaired of,  it  may  be  after  four  or  five  weeks,  all  at  once  they 
delight  us  by  appearing.  While  waiting,  however,  do  not  be 
tempted  to  let  the  earth  cake  over  the  seeds  or  to  dry  up.  As 
for  soil,  parsley  only  asks  for  good  medium  soil  worked  deep 
and  fine.  Sow  in  protected  nooks,  or  as  a  border  for  beds, 
or,  as  is  more  usual,  in  rows  about  one  foot  apart  and  half  an 
inch  deep.  When  well  up,  thin  or  transplant.  Fertilize  with 
nitrate  of  soda  or  liquid  manure.  Be  sure  to  bring  some 
plants  in  for  the  house  ;  .they  do  beautifully  in  a  warm  win- 
dow. Indoor  plants  from  seeds  will  be  green  and  thriving  in 
two  weeks'  time.  A  few  sprays  laid  on  a  platter  containing 
meat,  or  upon  a  salad,  never  fail  to  make  the  dish  more 


122  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

appetizing.  Parsley  is  also  used  as  seasoning  for  soups, 
croquettes,  and  hash. 

Radish.  Radishes  are  the  commonest  of  garden  vege- 
tables and  a  real  delight  to  the  beginner.  There  are  three 
varieties, — spring,  summer,  and  winter  radishes, — all  requir- 
ing very  much  the  same  food  and  care.  Early  radishes,  in 
particular,  love  cool  weather.  They  must  have  a  good  bed 
of  fine,  rich  earth,  and  thus  the  soil  must  be  well  worked  in 
preparation.  Sow  the  seed  in  rows,  one-half  inch  deep,  not 
too  thick.  Unless  the  seeds  have  been  sifted  through  a 
strainer,  and  the  smallest  cast  aside,  the  per  cent  of  germi- 
nation is  uncertain.  Plant  a  new  lot  as  often  as  every  ten  days 
at  least.  If  wanted  early,  they  can  easily  be  grown  in  boxes, 
for  the  French  breakfast  radishes  need  only  about  four  inches 
of  good  soil.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings  are  big  enough  to 
handle,  thin  them  out  to  one  inch  .apart.  Keep  the  earth 
always  well  cultivated,  and  as  soon  as  the  second  leaves  ap- 
pear, work  in  a  little  nitrate  of  soda  near  the  roots,  but  beware 
of  letting  it  touch  them  !  Use  every  device  you  can  think  of 
to  make  them  grow  quickly.  Then  they  will  be  crisp ;  other- 
wise they  will  be  tough  and  corky. 

Winter  radishes  are  sown  in  July  or  August.  They  are  to 
be  pulled  up  before. the  severe  frosts  come,  and  stored  in  sand. 
They  can  be  freshened  up  by  being  put  in  cold  water  for  an 
hour  before  they  are  required  for  the  table.  It  is  a  common 
thing  to  have  radish  plants  alternate  with  lettuce  in  a  garden. 

Radishes  are  wonderfully  free  from  pests.  The  only  real 
nuisance  is  the  root  maggot.  When  that  does  infest  the  soil, 
there  is  almost  no  getting  rid  of  it,  so  it  must  be  starved  out. 

Radishes  will  be  relished  at  any -meal ;  breakfast  is  no  ex- 
ception. Then,  too,  they  always  make  a  table  look  so  pretty. 
They  may  be  thinly  peeled  or  not,  as  one  chooses,  or  they 
are  sometimes  cut  part  way  down  toward  the  root  end,  to 


JUST  HOW  123 

form  a  rosette.  The  fibrous  taproot  is  always  cut  off,  and  a 
bit  of  the  stem  is  left  to  serve  as  a  handle.  Most  persons 
prefer  radishes  ice-cold.  Often  a  little  chopped  ice  is  placed 
in  the  dish.  When  cut  into  thin  slices  they  make  tempting 
sandwiches. 

Spinach.  Spinach  is  in  season  early  in  the  spring,  and 
again  early  in  the  summer.  For  summer  use  put  the  seed  in 
as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  giving  it  some  poultry 
manure  or  some  nitrate  of  soda,  as  is  advised  for  all  leafy 
crops  ;  liquid  manure  gives  good  results.  A  quick  growth 
here  as  usual  produces  crisp,  delicate  leaves.  Plant  the  seed 
one  inch  deep  and  not  too  thick ;  a  three-foot  bed  will  give 
astonishing  returns.  Here  is  one  person's  experience  in  spin- 
ach growing  :  "  It  germinated  in  eleven  days  ;  in  five  weeks 
the  row  was  thinned,  the  stockiest  plants  being  left.  These 
thinnings  from  three  feet  of  seed  sown  gave  me  nearly  one- 
half  peck  of  fine  greens."  For  early  spring  use  the  seed 
is  sown  in  the  preceding  August  or  September.  When 
the  ground  begins  to  freeze,  cover  it  with  several  inches 
of  hay.  The  plants  will  then  start  growing  at  the  earliest 
touch  of  spring. 

Prepare  spinach  for  the  table  in  the  following  way  :  Wash 
it  in  several  changes  of  cold  water  to  remove  all  sand  and 
grit,  and  heat  slowly  in  a  closely  covered  saucepan  till  the 
juices  start.  Then  boil  hard  one  hour.  Drain  it  well,  chop 
fine,  and  then  toss  it  about  with  a  tablespoonful  of  butter  in 
the  frying  pan.  Serve  smoking  hot  with  drawn  butter.  Then 
you  may  truthfully  say,  as  did  some  of  the  old-time  cookbooks 
in  winding  up  their  recipes,  "  This  is  delicious." 

Tomatoes.  The  tomato  is  a  brilliant  example  of  what  in- 
telligent cultivation  will  accomplish  for  a  plant.  This  one  is 
a  native  of  warm  countries.  Its  ancestors  came  originally  from 
South  America.  There  it  was  a  queer  little  fruit,  growing 


124  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

not  much  larger  than  a  cherry.  For  a  long  time,  indeed,  it 
was  regarded  merely  as  a  curiosity,  and  was  called  love  apple. 
As  its  ancestry  suggests,  it  needs  a  warm  spot  in  which 
to  ripen.  In  fact,  north  of  the  city  of  New  York  it  cannot 
usually  be  planted  in  the  open  and  have  time  to  bear  before 
frost;  so  plants  are  started  in  the  house  or  in  a  hot  frame 
early  in  March,  transplanted  when  they  begin  to  crowd,  and 
set  out  not  earlier  than  the  middle  of  May.  In  order  to 
develop  stocky  plants,  three  transplantings  are  usually  not 
too  many.  If  a  cold  snap  should  come  upon  them  suddenly, 
they  must  not  be  expected  to  shift  for  themselves,  but  should 
be  protected  with  newspapers  or  some  such  covering ;  still, 
on  the  whole,  it  is  best  not  to  be  rash  in  setting  them  out  too 
early.  In  estimating  how  much  seed  to  plant,  it  is  convenient 
to  remember  that  an  ounce  of  seed  will  produce  more  than 
two  thousand  plants ;  and  twenty  plants  will  usually  pro- 
duce more  fruit  than  one  family  can  possibly  use,  including 
enough  to  can. 

Tending  tomato  plants  requires  judgment.  In  setting  them 
out  select  the  spot  carefully  and  choose  a  warm  place  pro- 
tected by  a  windbreak.  Prepare  the  soil  with  thoroughly 
rotted  barn  manure ;  dig  holes  at  least  one  and  one-half  feet 
apart,  and  unless  the  soil  is  moist,  fill  with  water ;  then  slide 
each  seedling  carefully  into  its  hole.  When  the  earth  has 
been  properly  firmed  and  mulched,  scatter,  but  not  too  near, 
a  spoonful  of  nitrate  of  soda ;  then  water  the  plants  once 
again.  Protect  them  from  sun  and  wind  ;  give  them  air  and 
not  too  much  manure;  be  sure  not  to  let  the  plants  spindle, 
—  we  can  guess  why.  As  the  fruit  matures,  tie  the  main 
stem  to  a  stout  stake,  or  to  a  trellis  three  or  four  feet  high, 
which  has  been  driven  into  the  ground  near  the  plant.  Pinch 
off  all  unnecessary  foliage  and  keep  the  main  stem  down 
to  three  feet.  Some  say  pinch  back  lateral  shoots  until  the 


JUST  HOW  125 

plants  are  over  two  feet  high  ;  others  advise  retaining  ^three 
branches,  —  one  main  stem  and  two  side  branches.  Keep 
the  plants  growing  steadily  by  regular  watering  and  trans- 
planting. Pick  off  all  fruits  as  soon  as  they  ripen,  whether 
needed  or  not.  Of  course  the  easiest  way  is  to  let  the  plants 
sprawl  upon  the  ground,  but  it  has  been  proved  that  such 
plants  produce  less  weight  in  fruit,  and  that  a  great  deal 
more  is  lost  through  rot. 

Tomato  rot  and  the  giant  green  caterpillar  are  this  plant's 
most  formidable  enemies.  The  easiest  way  to  dispose  of  the 
caterpillars  is  to  knock  them  into  a  jar  of  kerosene  ;  and  to 
get  rid  of  rot,  burn  all  the  tomatoes  affected  with  it,  so  that 
it  cannot  spread. 

If  the  fruit  does  not  ripen  by  the  middle  of  September, 
the  plants  may  be  taken  up  bodily  and  hung  head  downwards 
in  a  cool  shed,  where  the  fruit  will  finish  maturing ;  or  the 
unripe  fruit  may  be  picked  and  put  in  drawers  or  on  shelves 
to  ripen.  Some  recommend  hastening  the  ripening  process, 
foreign  fashion,  by  tying  a  paper  bag  over  each  fruit  as  soon 
as  it  is  fully  formed.  But  the  tomato  is  one  of  the  few  vege- 
tables whose  flavor  is  not  improved  by  becoming  thoroughly 
ripe  on  the  plant. 

Tomatoes  really  have  slight  food  value,  and  yet  they  are 
a  welcome,  even  a  luxurious,  addition  to  our  tables.  Some 
think  they  taste  best  raw.  In  any  case  they  should  be  peeled  ; 
this  is  done  by  plunging  them  into  boiling  water  and  then 
quickly  removing  them ;  after  this  the  skin  will  slip  off 
easily.  They  should  be  well  chilled  before  slicing  and  serv- 
ing. For  cooking  there  are  all  sorts  of  recipes.  They  may 
also  be  preserved,  canned,  and  pickled ;  they  can  be  kept 
far  into  the  winter  according  to  the  method  called  the  Cana- 
dian,1 which  reads  as  follows  :  Select  fine,  perfect  fruit, 

1  Edith  Loring  Fullerton. 


126  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

washed  clean,  with  unbroken  skins.  Pack  the  tomatoes  in  a 
stone  jar  and  pour  over  them  alternately  a  pint  of  vinegar  and 
a  pint  of  cold  water  until  the  jar  is  full.  When  required  for 
use,  take  them  from  the  jar,  washing  them  in  cold  water  be- 
fore slicing.  This  method  provides  fresh  tomatoes  all  winter. 

Herbs.  One  little  corner  of  the  garden  may  well  be  devoted 
to  the  raising  of  some  herbs.  If  we  did  not  plant  a  few,  how 
guilty  we  should  feel  when  we  met  the  Thanksgiving  turkey. 
Thank  you,  no  stuffing  for  us !  Mint,  parsley,  sage,  and  thyme 
are  all  highly  prized  by  the  cook ;  these  may  be  sown  out  in 
the  open  garden.  Why  not  grow  among  the  rest  a  little  pep- 
permint, some  lavender  for  its  delicate  odor,  and  just  a  few 
catnip  plants,  —  not  to  make  tea  of,  as  our  great-grandmothers 
would  have  done,  but  as  a  special  treat  for  pussy,  who  will  go 
wild  over  it  ? 

Herbs  are  usually  raised  in  good  light  earth,  and  they 
demand  regular  cultivation.  Dry  them  in  a  warm  room.  If 
the  garret  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  then  pulverize  and  store 
in  an  air-tight  jar. 


CHAPTER  IX 
GARDEN  FOES  AND  GARDEN  FRIENDS 

On  every  stem,  on  every  leaf,  and  on  both  sides  of  it,  and  at  the  root  of 
everything  that  grew,  was  a  professional  specialist  in  the  shape  of  a  gnat, 
caterpillar,  aphis,  or  other  expert.  —  OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES 

A  gardener  tries  to  give  to  the  plants  for  which  he  has 
become  sponsor  ideal  conditions,  as  nearly  as  possible.  He 
conspires  with  them  against  other  eager  organisms  which,  by 
shading  them  from  the  sunshine  and  eating  up  their  food, 
would  like  to  crowd  them  out.  What  would  be  bounteous 
living  for  a  single  plant,  expanding  in  symmetry  and  beauty, 
would,  when  divided  among  a  lot  of  little  plants,  scarcely 
afford  to  each  more  than  a  starvation  diet.  So  a  gardener 
must,  first  of  all,  provide  for  his  plant  children  plenty  of  elbow 
room,  and  then  he  must  put  within  their  reach  such  infant 
foods  as  will  best  bring  forward  the  individual  quality,  or  what 
might  be  called  the  specialty,  of  each.  His  aim  is  not  to  pro- 
duce examples  of  all-round  perfection,  but  plants  which  do 
great  things  in  some  one  line,  as  in  flavor,  beauty,  or  food 
value.  A  crispy  leaf,  for  example,  is  the  specialty  of  lettuce, 
and  a  tart,  juicy  stem  that  of  rhubarb. 

A  good  many  plants  not  offered  in  the  catalogues  may 
really  have  as  great  intrinsic  value  as  those  on  the  seedsman's 
preferred  list,  although  we  call  them  weeds.  Nobody  can  say 
with  any  truth,  "  Once  a  weed,  always  a  weed."  The  humblest 
members  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  may  some  fine  day  be 
found  sitting  in  high  places.  In  our  grandmother's  time,  for 
instance,  so  delicious  a  fruit  as  the  tomato  was  looked  upon 

127 


128  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

with  suspicion,  if,  indeed,  it  was  not  shunned  as  poison.  The 
Russian  thistle,  which  lately  gave  our  Western  ranch  friends 
such  alarm,  is  to-day  praised  as  a  superior  food  for  live  stock 
and  is  actually  sown  on  their  farms.  Travelers  speak  with 
much  gusto  of  the  dishes  they  have  relished  in  other  lands, 
but  on  inquiry  we  find  that  some  of  the  best  of  these  are 
concocted  out  of  the  very  weeds,  or  cousins  of  the  weeds, 
that  straggle  along  our  roadsides.  Through  such  instances 
we  learn  not  to  be  snobs ;  we  come  to  understand  better 
every  day  what  Emerson  meant  by  saying  that  a  weed  is  a 
plant  whose  worth  has  not  yet  been  discovered.  A  distin- 
guished chemist  goes  still  farther  in  his  prophecies.  He 
says,  "  I  believe  that  there  is  not  a  by-product  or  a  residuum 
or  a  weed  in  our  fields  which  will  not  be  of  value  to  human 
beings."  A  family  in  the  suburbs  is  following  up  this  hint 
in  their  home  gardens.  They  have  set  apart  a  certain  space 
where  each  year  they  cultivate  experimentally  a  few  un- 
familiar food  plants.  Some  of  these  are  plain  weeds  which 
promise  well,  but  to  which,  as  far  as  is  known,  gardeners  have 
never  deigned  to  give  attention.  Others  are  foreign  food 
plants,  highly  valued  abroad  but  almost  unknown  as  yet  to 
American  housewives. 

The  members  of  this  enterprising  family  interest  them- 
selves not  only  in  developing  these  obscure  plant  virtues  but, 
after  the  plants  are  raised,  in  preparing  them  appetizingly  for 
the  table.  When  they  have  succeeded  with  some  new  plant 
which  they  find  palatable  and  nutritious,  in  high  glee  they 
call  the  neighbors  in.  This  is  one  of  the  by-pleasures  of  the 
garden.  A  well-known  gardener  recommends  for  considera- 
tion such  plants  as  chicory,  okra,  chervil,  pe-tsai,  prickly 
spinach,  and  Sakurajima  radish.  Another  suggests  purslane, 
mustard,  charlock,  and  peppergrass.  Pigweed,  we  are  assured, 
makes  delicious  greens.  Shall  we  try  it  some  day  ? 


GARDEN   FOES  AND  GARDEN   FRIENDS  129 

Although  we  are  willing  to  concede  that  weeds  have  reason 
for  being,  no  gardener  will,  except  by  special  "  permit," 
grant  them  the  freedom  of  his  garden.  Still,  getting  rid  of 
them  is  a  great  problem.  In  special  instances  it  has  been 
found  that  these  nurslings  can  be  destroyed  in  their  cradles 
by  sterilizing  the  soil.  In  greenhouses  this  is  now  often 
done  by  a  hot-water  process.  Acting  on  this  principle,  some 
schoolboys  not  long  ago  tried  baking  in  their  mothers'  ovens 
the  topsoil  for  their  vegetable  gardens,  —  and  with  fair  suc- 
cess. But  sterilizing  presents  altogether  too  many  difficulties 
to  warrant  considering  it  seriously  for  general  practice.  Really 
the  only  way  to  disturb  these  weed  nurseries  is  by  hoe  or  hand 
weeder.  For  a  nature-study  class,  collecting  the  weeds  of  a 
region,  mounting  them  so  as  to  show  their  life  histories  from 
seedling  to  fruit,  is  well  worth  while.  This  is  in  direct  line 
with  the  work  of  the  experiment  station. 

Somehow  weeding  is  always  referred  to  as  the  lowest  form 
of  drudgery,  and  so  it  would  seem  like  putting  on  airs  for  us 
to  claim  that  it  can  be  anything  else.  Has  it  not  been  said 
to  require  a  cast-iron  back  with  a  hinge  in  it  ?  And  yet  in 
this  occupation,  as  in  every  sort  of  toil,  much  depends  upon 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  being  done.  We  cannot  doubt 
Stevenson's  sincerity,  for  instance,  when  he  wrote  to  his 
friends  from  that  garden  in  Samoa  which  he  loved  so  dearly : 
"  I  went  crazy  over  outdoor  work.  Nothing  is  so  interesting 
as  weeding,  clearing,  and  path-making.  ...  If  you  could 
see  this  place.  It  will  be  a  home  for  angels."  l  And  as  a  bit 
of  encouragement  for  ourselves,  just  fancy  what  weeding  in 
the  tropics  must  be  ! 

Enters  now  a  second  trouble.  Even  the  mildest-tempered 
farmer  is  apt  to  lose  patience  when  he  -sets  out  to  rid  his  farm 
land  of  the  fungi  that  calmly  nourish  themselves  upon  the 

1  R.  L.  Stevenson,  Vailima  Letters. 


130  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

tissues  of  other  plants.  These  fungi  include  the  scabs,  the 
smuts,  and  the  blights.  They  do  not  sound  pretty ;  nor  are 
they.  Each  fungus  falls  upon  its  own  pet  victims.  Potatoes 
are  commonly  attacked  by  a  scab  which  appears  sometimes 
on  the  tuber  itself  and  sometimes  on  the  soil  surrounding  it. 
This  is  easily  recognized.  If  the  scab  is  already  established 
upon  the  potato,  a  good  sun  bath  given  to  a  pile  of  potatoes 
all  ready  for  planting  will  work  a  cure.  Potato  plants  suffer 
from  a  blight  also.  This  blight  looks  like  a  white  mildew, 
and  it  may  be  detected  on  the  stem  and  leaves.  Celery  too 
suffers  from  a  blight  or  rust,  and  so  do  beans.  On  beans 
the  rust  attacks  both  leaves  and  pods  in  wet  weather,  so  one 
must  never  brush  against  them  when  they  are  covered  by 
dew.  Various  sprays  are  recommended  for  driving  away  the 
villains ;  Bordeaux  mixture  is  one.  Corn  smut  is  a  serious 
malady  which  takes  the  form  of  a  swelling  that  may  appear 
on  any  part  of  the  plant  system.  Underneath  the  silvery 
white  coating  there  will  be  noticed  a  black  mass  filled  with 
fibers.  Get  rid  of  these  at  all  costs,  lest  they  spread.  Burning 
is  the  only  sure  way. 

Every  plant,  moreover,  has  its  insect  followers.  But  again 
no  gardener,  amiable  though  he  may  be,  will  voluntarily  go 
shares  with  animals,  who,  like  himself,  enjoy  a  delicious  salad. 
To  be  sure,  since  many  of  us,  men  and  beasts,  have  such 
similar  gastronomic  tastes,  it  is  not  becoming  in  humankind 
to  be  too  supercilious.  And  yet  it  is  fair  play  to  get  ahead  of 
these  insects  if  you  can.  Sometimes  the  game  is  ours ;  not 
infrequently  it  is  theirs.  It  is  a  significant  comment  that  in 
all  probability  not  a  single  pest  wrestled  with  by  man,  since 
he  came  to  abide  on  this  earth  of  ours,  has  ever  been  stamped 
out.  At  the  present  time  six  hundred  million  dollars'  worth, 
at  the  very  least,  of  foodstuffs  in  the  United  States  is  being 
destroyed  yearly  by  insects.  It  really  amounts  to  paying  a 


GARDEN   FOES  AND  GARDEN  FRIENDS  131 

tribute  equal  to  one  tenth  of  all  that  is  raised.  This  tax  will 
strike  even  the  optimist  as  extortionate.  If  for  no  other  rea- 
son than  to  diminish  the  number  of  pests,  a  plea  is  being 
made  that  the  gardener  will  cultivate  beautifully  a  small  plot 
which  can  be  held  in  check  rather  than  a  large  farm  that  runs 
wild.  This  course  is  recommended  independently  of  the  fact 
that  by  intensive  treatment  a  small  field  will  yield  at  the  very 
lowest  estimate  a  double  crop.  Any  countryside  has  cause 
for  rejoicing  if  it  has  united  in  some  cooperative  scheme 
that  will  wage  common  warfare  on  these  enemies.  For  they 
are  great  rovers ;  therefore  one  family's  garden  depends 
upon  another.  In  the  work  of  extermination  a  whole  neigh- 
borhood must  pull  together.  If  one  lone  garden  goes  to  the 
bad,  all  the  rest  suffer. 

It  would  be  hopeless  to  try  to  enumerate  even  the  common 
insects  that  bring  sorrow  to  the  farmer.  The  best  that  can 
be  attempted  here  is  to  lay  down  a  few  principles  and  to 
suggest  a  general  working  plan.  To  learn  more,  one  must 
consult  some  of  the  many  manuals  on  the  subject. 

The  first  step,  however,  towards  learning  to  protect  plants 
from  pests  is  to  determine  what  sort  of  feeder  each  insect  is. 
Among  the  injurious  insects  there  are  what  we  may  call  two 
grand  methods  of  feeding.  One  method  is  chewing  by  means 
of  an  elaborate  set  of  jaws  ;  the  other  is  piercing  the  tissues 
and  sucking  out  the  juices.  A  potato  beetle  and  a  squash 
bug  are  representatives  of  these  two  types.  After  examining 
their  mouth  parts  with  a  magnifying  glass,  no  comment  will 
be  required  upon  "their  tricks  and  their  manners";  suffice 
it  to  say  that  each  does  full  justice  to  the  delicate  tools, 
whether  for  sucking  or  for  lace-making,  with  which  he  is 
equipped.  To  destroy  chewers  it  will  be  necessary  to  sprinkle 
some  sort  of  poison  on  the  plant,  either  in  liquid  or  in  powder 
form.  If  the  plant  in  question  is  like  the'  potato  in  that  its 


132  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

leaves  are  not  used  for  food,  the  treatment  is  simple  enough, 
but  great  caution  must  be  used  to  prevent  scattering  poison 
on  the  leaves  of  plants  that  are  to  be  eaten  as  greens  or 
salad,  lest  sad  results  follow. 

The  treatment  for  sucking  insects  —  the  bugs  —  is,  how- 
ever, different.  These  escape  death  by  poison  because  they 
drink  deep,  and  so  some  way  must  be  found  to  choke  or  to 
smother  them.  This  is  accomplished  by  spraying  with  an 
emulsion  of  kerosene,  combined  sometimes  with  whale-oil 
soap.  Hand  spraying  with  a  quart-size  atomizer  is  not  hard. 
Yet,  after  all,  in  a  small  garden  nothing  is  so  effective  as 
doing  the  work  by  hand ;  this  means  picking  off  the  pests 
or  shaking  them  into  a  jar  of  kerosene,  being  careful  not 
to  let  one  escape. 

It  helps  wonderfully  to  be  able  to  recognize  at  a  glance  the 
common  insects  in  each  of  their  various  stages,  to  watch  for 
them  both  above  and  below  ground,  and  if  possible  to  outwit 
their  strategy.  This  again  is  in  line  with  the  work  of  the 
experiment  stations.  A  pair  of  butterflies,  for  instance,  whirl 
about  on  a  sunshiny  morning,  dancing  like  fairies  with  their 
pale,  spotted  wings.  Where  did  they  come  from  ?  Less  than 
a  month  before,  each  dainty  creature  was  an  egg,  belonging, 
in  fact,  to  a  cluster  of  hundreds  of  tiny  eggs  that  had  been 
skillfully  gummed  upon  the  under  side  of  a  juicy  cabbage 
leaf.  Not  many  days  elapsed  before  a  transformation  took 
place  and  the  eggs  hatched  into  caterpillars,  soft  and  green. 
Coming  into  a  rich  inheritance  of  new  cabbage,  each  little 
caterpillar  promptly  began  chewing  its  way  into  the  crisp 
inner  leaves.  Its  span  of  life  is,  in  fact,  largely  passed  in  this 
land  of  plenty,  first  in  the  caterpillar  and  then  in  the  chrysalis 
stage,  where  it  rests  awhile  before  coming  out  a  butterfly. 
Twice  a  year,  at  least,  new  broods  of  cabbage  caterpillars  are 
hatched  from  eggs.  The  canny  farmer  will  of  course  not 


GARDEN   FOES  AND  GARDEN  FRIENDS  133 

miss  catching  this  elusive  creature  in  some  one  of  its  life 
stages.  If  the  neatly  hidden  eggs  fail  to  attract  his  eye,  the 
caterpillar  itself  must  on  no  account  be  allowed  to  escape. 
Destroying  the  eggs,  or,  better  still,  catching  the  butterfly  be- 
fore the  eggs  are  laid,  is  by  all  means  the  most  economical 
course.  In  this  way  he  puts  a  certain  end  to  hundreds  at  one 
stroke  in  preference  to  pursuing  the  myriads  of  caterpillars 
after  they  begin  to  wend  their  devastating  way.  Of  the  cab- 
bage butterfly,  agriculturists  say  that  it  is  probably  the  only 
butterfly  that  should  be  destroyed  wherever  seen. 

Moths  and  butterflies  usually  winter  in  the  pupa  form,  either 
as  cocoon  or  chrysalis.  They  respond  so  quickly  to  a  rise  in 
temperature  that  they  often  surprise  us  by  appearing  as  one 
of  the  signs  of  spring  while  the  snow  still  lies  in  patches 
upon  the  ground.  The  potato  beetle  tides  over  the  cold 
weather  by  creeping  into  the  ground  as  a  full-grown  adult 
and  remaining  there  torpid  but  alive  and  ready  to  take  up 
its  occupation  as  a  master  chewer  at  any  favorable  moment. 
Most  beetles  and  bugs,  however,  pass  the  winter  in  a  resting 
stage  as  pupae,  and  do  not  emerge  in  adult  form  until  a 
fortnight  or  so  after  the  spring  sets  in. 

The  ground  is  so  full  of  a  number  of  things  !  It  is,  in  fact, 
a  regular  hatchery.  And  yet  most  girls  and  boys,  and  men 
and  women  too,  go  on  their  way  little  suspecting  what  wealth 
of  life  swarms  beneath  their  very  feet.  But  the  scientific 
gardener  is  rudely  awakened  to  the  situation.  One  season's 
experience  is  quite  enough  for  him.  Before  the  summer 
closes  he  has  at  least  resolved  to  keep  the  soil  perpetually 
stirred  and  to  leave  it  rough  in  the  autumn.  By  this  act  he 
will  join  hands  with  the  elements.  He  thus  not  only  takes 
advantage  of  the  first  light  fall  of  snow,  which  has  long  been 
known  as  the  "poor  man's  fertilizer,"  but  he  relies  upon  frost, 
rain,  and  sunshine  to  quietly  but  effectually  wipe  out  the  line 


134  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

of  descent  in  many  a  prolific  family.  Picture  if  you  will  how 
this  treatment  would  affect,  for  instance,  the  corn  worm. 
Offspring  of  a  dull  yellow  moth  which  feeds  on  tomatoes, 
peas,  and  beans,  it  goes  through  the  changes  from  caterpillar 
to  moth  in  an  interval  of  three  or  four  weeks,  during  which  it 
is  buried  out  of  sight.  Again,  the  cucumber  beetle  conceals 
its  eggs  in  the  soil  around  the  cucumber,  squash,  or  melon, 
and  the  young  larvae  feed  luxuriously  upon  the  roots. 

The  tomato  worm,  child  of  the  five-spotted  sphinx  moth, 
goes  through  its  transformations  underground  after  the  same 
fashion.  Rose  beetles,  the  scourge  of  every  garden,  which 
are  so  apt  to  appear,  out  of  a  clear  sky,  as  it  were,  on  some 
fine  June  morning,  will  have  made  all  their  preparations  for 
their  debut  within  their  subterranean  homes.  For  the  eggs 
are  usually  laid  in  the  ground  in  early  summer  and  hatched 
into  grubs  which  feed  on  the  roots  of  grass  and  remain  be- 
low ground  through  the  winter.  Not  until  spring  do  they 
pass  through  a  brief  pupa  stage,  coming  out  as  perfect  adults 
in  a  short  month. 

The  cutworm,  progeny  of  the  owlet  moth,  is  most  suc- 
cessful in  carrying  on  its  dire  operations  during  the  watches 
of  the  night.  Though  the  eggs  are  laid  above  ground,  both 
caterpillar  and  moth  are  nocturnal,  and  that  is  why  they  are 
able  so  successfully  to  escape  destruction.  The  caterpillar,  on 
emerging  from  the  egg,  hastens  to  a  spot  of  safety  under- 
ground, coming  out  of  its  hiding  place,  however,  at  night  to 
nibble  the  tender  stalks.  By  scraping  away  the  loose  earth 
one  may  get  a  look  at  him.  A  true  account  is  given  by 
a  man  who,  puzzled  by  the  mysterious  devastation  of  his 
orchards  and  vines,  heard  one  night  as  he  walked  across 
the  field  what  sounded  like  the  grinding  of  countless  jaws. 
On  striking  a  match  the  mystery  was  solved.  The  trees 
were  simply  alive  with  hungry  cutworms. 


GARDEN  FOES  AND  GARDEN  FRIENDS  135 

Fortunately,  such  serious  disasters  do  not  happen  every 
season,  or  a  gardener  would  probably  become  a  pessimist. 
Looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of  science,  there  is  for 
even  these  troubles  some  small  compensation.  They  offer  a 
wide  field  for  biological  study.  Few  animal  types  are  more 
interesting  than  insects,  or  better  worth  children's  attention. 
The  cycle  of  life  through  which  these  tiny  creatures  pass 
may  be  watched  with  keen  interest.  Children  like  to  con- 
struct insect  cages  in  which  a  whole  life  drama  from  egg  to 
adult  can  be  enacted.  Naturally  in  these  cages  the  normal 
condition  will  be  imitated  as  nearly  as  possible  ;  and  after- 
wards many  variations  in  food,  temperature,  and  light  can  be 
tried.  They  may  study  the  cutworm  too,  contrasting  it  with 
our  benefactor  the  earthworm,  as  well  as  aphids,  or  plant  lice, 
the  San  Jose  scale,  and  the  tomato  worm.  To  this  list  will 
probably  be  added  other  forms,  such  as  the  garden  slug 
and  the  mosquito. 

Our  enemies  having  been  vanquished,  in  theory  at  least, 
and  the  question  settled  as  to  who's  who  in  the  garden,  let  us 
now  turn  to  a  study  which  is  just  as  profitable  and  infinitely 
more  cheering.  This  consists  in  getting  acquainted  with 
animals  which  distinctly  benefit  the  garden.  There  are  some 
"beasties"  which  a  garden  really  could  not  live  without.  Of 
course,  a  gardener  will  learn  not  only  to  recognize  and  protect 
these,  but  deliberately  to  cultivate  them. 

There  are  insects  whose  very  life  work,  so  it  would  seem 
to  a  casual  observer,  consists  in  saving  a  farmer  from  pests. 
One  of  these,  to  which  he  might  well  take  off  his  hat,  is  the 
ladybird,  or  lady  beetle.  This  little  creature's  food  is  chiefly 
plant  lice.  Any  one  who  will  watch  it  for  a  short  quarter 
of  an  hour,  industriously  disposing  of  hundreds  of  aphids,  is 
sure  to  become  its  ardent  admirer.  The  lady  beetle  is  never 
daunted.  She  lays  her  clusters  of  yellow  eggs,  bold  as  a  lion, 


136  GARDENS  AND  THEIR   MEANING 

in  the  midst  of  a  swarm  of  these  aphids.  From  the  moment 
the  young  hatch  they  may  be  said  to  "do  the  duty  that  lies 
nearest  to  them,"  which  apparently  is  to  clear  of  parasites 
the  leaves  upon  which  a  kind  Providence  has  placed  them. 
These  larvae  are  grotesque  creatures.  Black  with  reddish 
spots,  or  occasionally  blue,  they  bristle  all  over  with  so  many 
warts  and  spines  that  no  wonder  they  themselves  are  not 
relished  by  other  animals.  They  consume  indiscriminately 
plant  lice,  scale  animals,  and  the  young,  eggs  and  larvae,  of 
all  sorts  of  insects.  In  both  the  larva  and  adult  stage  this 
little  beetle  carries  on  its  scavenger  work.  It  belongs  in  the 
list  of  animals  which  will  repay  indoor  study. 

It  has  been  thought  that  the  nests  of  these  lady  beetles, 
whose  habit  it  is  to  hibernate  snugly  in  balls,  as  these  are 
called,  under  piles  of  brush,  might  possibly  be  collected 
and  distributed  in  infested  gardens.  Why  not  try  it  ?  There 
seems  also  to  be  no  reason  why  lady  beetles  may  not  be 
kept  alive  through  the  winter  on  house  plants,  but  up  to  this 
time  nobody  appears  to  have  done  this  successfully. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  beetles  whose  use  should  be 
recognized.  Conspicuous  among  them  is  the  tiger  beetle,  a 
fierce  consumer  of  caterpillars.  Then  there  is  the  ichneumon 
fly,  a  sort  of  parasitic  wasp,  which  acts  as  an  insect  killer  for 
nearly  every  sort  of  plant.  Its  habit  is  to  lay  a  bunch  of 
eggs  on  or  in  the  body  of  the  larva  of  some  other  insect,  with 
the  result,  of  course,  that  this  larva  is  consumed  by  the  newly 
hatched  intruder.  The  cleverness  with  which  this  egg  laying 
is  accomplished  is  certainly  marvelous. 

Of  ichneumon  flies  there  are  many  species.  They  vary 
greatly  in  size,  several  of  them  being  very  beautiful.  One 
species  drills  into  the  firm  tissue  of  trees,  in  order  to  lay  her 
eggs  in  or  upon  the  body  of  some  wood-boring  larva,  which, 
concealed  well  beneath  the  bark  of  some  handsome  maple,  is 


GARDEN   FOES  AND  GARDEN   FRIENDS  137 

riddling  it  with  fatal  holes.  Another  species  performs  what 
is  little  less  than  a  sleight-of-hand  trick,  that  of  stinging  a 
caterpillar  in  the  very  act  of  spinning  its  cocoon,  for  the  sake 
of  depositing  a  bunch  of  eggs  inside.  This  makes  assurance 
doubly  sure  that  the  eggs  shall  be  wrapped  up  safely  in  the 
swaddling  clothes  of  its  victim.  If  school  children  are  en- 
gaged in  raising  caterpillars,  the  tent  caterpillar  or  the  sphinx 
in  particular,  they  can  in  due  time  see  the  spectacle  of  para- 
sites emerging  by  dozens  from  the  caterpillar's  body. 

There  are  sure  to  be  pools,  large  or  small,  not  far  away 
from  the  garden ;  and  pools  mean  dragon  flies.  These  exqui- 
site creatures  are  happily  to  be  counted  among  the  gardener's 
friends.  Their  motions  are  fascinating  to  watch,  and  their 
life  stories  read  like  fairy  tales.  What  is  more  to  the  point, 
their  food  includes  many  annoying  insects  that  swarm  in  the 
air  on  a  summer's  day,  such  as  gnats,  flies,  and  mosquitoes. 
The  dragon  fly  is  clever  at  catching  and  eating  these  on  the 
wing,  and  the  wingless  young  dragon  fly  or  nymph  does  his 
share  by  prowling  about  in  the  water  and  consuming  many 
a  "  wriggler." 

The  worth  of  toads  to  the  gardener  is  now  so  universally 
recognized  that  it  only  remains  for  him  to  study  the  best  ways 
of  keeping  and  breeding  them.1  A  great  deal  may  be  learned 
indoors  by  contriving  for  a  pair  of  toads  a  snug  little  home 
where  they  can  live  a  somewhat  normal  life  and  can  exhibit 
their  very  characteristic  tastes  in  food.  The  fact  that  they  are 
greedy  for  garden  slugs  and  all  sorts  of  lively,  hopping  in- 
sects, preferring  these  to  all  the  other  foods  that  are  set  before 
them,  speaks  eloquently  in  their  favor.  One  pet  toad  is  so 
obliging  as  to  eat  no  less  than  one  hundred  rose  bugs  in  the 
course  of  a  night.  For  a  city  lot,  which  perhaps  has  long 

1  Usefulness  of  the  American  Toad,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bulletin  No.  iqb. 


138  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

been  toadless,  it  will  really  pay  to  import  a  few  toads.  There- 
fore go  on  a  still  hunt  some  day  and  bring  them  home  in  a 
bag.  These  adopted  children  are  not  apt  to  thrive  so  well, 
however,  as  those  born  and  bred  in  the  garden,  but  this, 
in  the  cases  we  know,  may  have  been  largely  a  matter  of 
luck.  An  arrangement  for  breeding  them  in  a  little  pool, 
where  they  may  be  raised  from  the  egg,  has  afforded  one 
family  many  an  entertaining  hour.  In  any  case,  since  the 
eggs  are  always  laid  in  water,  at  least  some  contrivance  to 
encourage  breeding  should  be  provided.  Nobody  can  help 
enjoying  Mrs.  Thaxter's  amusing  account  of  establishing  a 
colony  of  toads  in  her  garden. 

One  other  animal,  so  useful  that  it  might  be  properly  named 
the  "First  Aid  to  the  Garden,"  remains  to  be  properly  men- 
tioned. It  is  a  creature  that  associates  itself  with  the  earliest 
principles  of  agriculture.  This  is  the  earthworm.  How  to 
make  children  appreciate  at  first  hand  the  almost  priceless 
value  of  earthworms  to  the  world  deserves  more  than  passing 
consideration.  "It  may  be  doubted,"  says  Darwin,  "whether 
there  are  any  other  animals  which  have  played  so  important  a 
part  in  the  history  of  the  world  as  have  these  lowly  organized 
creatures."  1  Their  activities  are  indicated  by  many  signs. 
The  little  mounds  of  castings  show  us  where  their  burrows 
lie.  Brush  away  the  stray  leaves  and  grass  that  they  have 
pulled  down  into  their  burrows,  and  you  will  find  a  channel 
extending  many  inches  below  ground. 

In  the  course  of  making  a  burrow,  not  only  has  the  earth 
been  crumbled  up  and  enriched,  but  the  holes  afford  easy  pas- 
sage for  air,  for  water,  and  for  rootlets.  The  morning  after  a 
warm  rain  is  the  time  to  find  belated  earthworms  that  have 
been  tempted,  through  their  enjoyment  of  refreshing  draughts 
of  water,  too  far  away  from  their  burrows.  But  to  find  them 

1  Charles  R.  Darwin,  The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould, 


GARDEN   FOES  AND  GARDEN  FRIENDS  139 

at  work  is  a  different  story,  since  during  the  day  they  remain 
quite  listless.  Darkness  is  the  season  for  their  industry. 
Hunting  earthworms  with  a  lantern  may  sound  tame  sport,  but 
it  is,  on  the  contrary,  curiously  exciting.  If  one  approaches 
the  worms  stealthily,  they  are  seen  lying  stretched  along  the 
moist  surface  halfway  out  of  their  holes.  The  hind  end  still 
clings  to  the  burrow,  while  the  mouth  is  sucking  and  tug- 
ging toward  the  hole  scraps  of  leaves  and  grass.  The  ease 
with  which  its  wonderful  elastic  body  is  able,  by  expanding  and 
contracting,  to  accomplish  such  feats  offers  one  of  the  most 
striking  lessons  in  animal  mechanism.  The  reaction  of  the 
worm  when  stimulated  by  the  lantern's  rays  and  by  human 
footsteps  may  also  be  noticed.  All  these  feats  may  be  watched 
in  the  laboratory  if  the  worms  are  kept  in  a  darkened  jar 
and  the  curtain  raised  from  time  to  time.  A  performance 
fascinating  to  children  is  one  where  worms  are  eating  tiny 
bits  of  filter  paper.  There  are  a  great  many  other  experi- 
ments which  any  one  who  carries  on  a  vivarium  will  propose 
of  his  own  accord. 

Children  are  not  by  nature  prejudiced  against  animals  like 
toads  and  earthworms,  except  that  any  unusual  forms  or  move- 
ments are  at  first  disconcerting  ;  but  the  example  set  by  their 
elders,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  not  always  reassuring.  The 
perfect  harmony  which  earthworms  display,  through  genera- 
tions of  adaptation  to  their  surroundings,  and  the  survival 
of  the  ones  best  equipped  for  the  struggle  of  life,  is  an  inex- 
haustible source  of  interest  and  admiration,  although  every- 
thing depends,  as  has  been  said,  upon  the  point  of  view.  The 
easy  adjustment  of  children  to  a  new  point  of  view  may  be 
illustrated  by  a  little  incident. 

A  small  girl  of  ten  had  shown  a  strong  antipathy  to  some 
earthworms  which  she  found  lying  in  the  garden  path.  She 
was  so  disturbed  that  her  work  was  stopped,  her  pleasure 


140  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING  . 

spoiled.  The  garden  teacher,  with  a  quick  eye  for  the  situ- 
ation, explained  on  the  spot  to  the  children  the  value  of  ani- 
mals to  the  garden,  sparing  no  pains  to  do  the  earthworm 
full  justice.  Not  many  days  after,  the  child  was  seen  traveling 
to  and  fro,  intent,  it  appeared,  upon  some  important  business. 
"What  are  you  doing,  Susan?"  "I  am  collecting  earthworms 
for  my  garden."  A  zealous  convert  to  the  new  thought,  she  had 
been  industriously  gathering  from  all  parts  of  the  lot  dozens 
of  writhing  worms,  which  she  was  proceeding  to  "  plant "  in 
'her  own  individual  garden,  a  space  six  feet  by  eight. 

Perhaps,  on  the  whole,  a  gardener's  most  faithful  allies  are 
the  birds,  and  if  so,  it  is  his  duty  to  protect  and  to  cultivate 
them.  Every  bird,  except  the  English  sparrow,  is  what  may 
be  called  a  "  paying  guest,"  and  some  birds  are  really  price- 
less. Farmers  have  shown  themselves  incredibly  shortsighted 
in  not  balancing  fairly  the  virtues  of  birds  against  their  mis- 
chief, especially  when  their  helpful  acts  would  so  clearly  seem 
to  outweigh  their  troublesome  ones.  And  yet  mistakes  are 
inevitable  when  acting,  as  they  have  commonly  done,  on  the 
basis  of  snap  judgments  instead  of  the  basis  of  actual  experi- 
ment. Admitting  that  birds,  like  children,  have  their,  trouble- 
some moments,  who  is  mean  enough  to  refuse  a  modest 
payment  in  cherries,  if  that  is  the  currency  preferred,  to  a 
bird  like  the  robin,  which  often  consumes  in  a  day  hundreds 
of  pests  ?  Mr.  George  T.  Powell  says  that  he  makes  it  a 
point  to  set  out  a  few  shrubs  which  birds  especially  like,  on 
purpose  to  discharge  his  debt  to  tHem. 

If  we  hope  to  coax  them  to  our  fields  and  gardens,  we  can 
only  do  so  by  studying  their  tastes.  A  pan  of  mud  for  swal- 
lows and  robins,  hair  for  the  chipping  sparrows,  as  well  as 
bits  of  thread,  yarn,  and  twine,  will  all  be  woven  into  some 
dainty  nest ;  and  all  sorts  of  birds  will  find  a  drinking  basin 
and  a  bath  most  acceptable. 


GARDEN  FOES  AND  GARDEN   FRIENQS  141 

Some  of  our  familiar  birds  eat  almost  nothing  but  insects. 
Such  are  swallows,  flycatchers,  warblers,  swifts,  and  humming 
birds.  Others,  although  not  exclusively  insect  eaters,  may 
nevertheless  be  depended  upon  to  consume  insects  by  the 
multitude.  Among  these  are  the  bluebird,  robin,  catbird, 
thrush,  chickadee,  cedar  bird,  grackle,  and  woodpecker.  A 
pledge  to  which  every  gardener  should  be  proud  to  subscribe 
is  the  following:  "I  promise  to  do  all  I  can  for  all  native 
birds,  by  treating  them  with  kindness  and  providing  them 
with  food,  water,  and  homes."  l 

1  Hodge,  Nature  Study  and  Life. 


CHAPTER  X 
SIDE  SHOWS 

And  in  the  windows,  either  side  the  door, 

Were  ranged  as  many  little  boxes  more 

Of  like  old-fashioned  larkspurs,  pinks  and  moss 

And  fern  and  phlox ;  while  up  and  down  across 

Them  rioted  the  morning-glory-vines 

On  taut-set  cotton-strings. — JAMES  WHITCOMB  RILEY 

The  most  attractive  features  of  a  school  garden  are  likely 
to  be  its  accessories,  or  what  may  be  called,  for  short,  the 
side  shows.  These  accessories  give  peculiar  pleasure  because 
each  one  will  have  been  undertaken  by  youngsters  who  have 
hit  upon  their  hearts'  desire,  and  who  have  decided  to  seek 
it  in  company  with  a  few  chosen  spirits.  No  such  group, 
however,  is  really  cut  off  from  the  rest.  The  responsibility 
of  "  making  good  "  is  no  light  one,  for  it  is  required  of 
them  in  their  allotted  space  to  do  something  worth  while  ; 
their  experiment  must  be  a  credit  to  the  whole  garden. 

Questioned  as  to  why  he  is  putting  so  much  energy  into  a 
purely  voluntary  task,  one  eager  worker  gave,  in  substance, 
the  reply  of  a  keen  Irish  woman  who,  when  urged  to  tell  her 
idea  of  heaven,  answered  racily,  "  Heaven  ?  Oh,  heaven  is 
doing  the  job  you  like."  The  self-elected  jobs  of  the  children 
are  of  all  sorts  and  kinds.  The  experiment  plots  already 
spoken  of,  for  instance,  may  be  counted  among  the  popular 
and  instructive  accessories.  Other  schemes  may  not  connect 
so  directly  with  the  soil  itself. 

A  project  which  in  every  garden  deserves  to  be  encouraged 
is  some  well-planned  contrivance  for  protecting  the  birds.  A 

142 


SIDE   SHOWS  143 

community  should  look  to  its  gardener  to  take  the  lead  in 
establishing  intelligent  and  protective  measures. 

Time  was,  and  not  so  long  ago,  when  many  species  of 
birds  gladly  accepted  the  hospitality  of  a  bird  house.  This 
they  would  still  continue  to  do  if  it  were  not  for  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  tyrant  sparrow.  For,  as  we  know  to  our  sorrow, 
just  in  proportion  as  the  English  sparrow  has  fought  his  way 
into  a  locality,  the  native  birds  have  been  driven  .farther  and 
farther  back.  At  present  comparatively  few  will  breed  in 
boxes  unless  by  some  means  this  fellow  has  been  banished. 
So  scare  him  away,  if  possible,  till  the  other  birds  begin  to 
build.  Fortunately,  there  still  remain  as  many  as  twelve  spe- 
cies of  birds  which  may  be  counted  upon  to  come  regularly 
to  spots  where  their  peace  can  be  assured. 

Among  these  are  to  be  found  four  kinds  of  swallows  :  the 
chimney  swift,  the  house  wren,  the  bluebird,  and  the  phoebe. 
Neither  the  robin  nor  the  nighthawk  can  as  a  rule  be  tempted 
to  nest  in  boxes,  but  both  will  occasionally  breed  on  the  tops 
of  buildings.  As  for  those  handsome  members  of  the  wood- 
pecker family,  —  the  flickers,  —  strange  to  say  not  very  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  entice  them  into  neighborhoods  ; 
and  yet  they  are  such  famous  insect  hunters  that  it  would 
seem  well  worth  trying.  This  ought  not  to  be  difficult  either, 
if  their  tastes  can  be  judged  by  the  amusing  pranks  they 
sometimes  play.  Tales  are  told  of  how,  as  cold  weather  ap- 
proaches, they  cut  little  porthole-like  doorways  for  them- 
selves, and  serenely  enter  some  unoccupied  summer  cottage, 
where  they  settle  snugly  for  the  winter,  to  enjoy  the  comforts 
of  home.  Often  they  are  not  discovered  till  spring.  It  is 
therefore  proposed  to  offer  them  at  least  the  alternative  of 
an  all-the-year-round  cottage  of  their  own. 

The  bluebird  is  sure  to  become  a  family  friend,  provided 
we  have  an  orchard  or  some  mowing  land  near  by.  This 


144  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

lovable  bird  has,  however,  very  decided  tastes  in  architecture ; 
his  house  must  be  "  just  so,"  and,  by  the  bye,  it  should  be 
completed  before  his  arrival,  early  in  March.  In  shape  it 
should  be  long  and  deep,  the  interior  suggesting  the  hollow 
of  a  tree.  Knowing  this,  any  young  architect  can  suit  him  to 
perfection  by  cutting  a  section  of  some  fallen  log  or  limb  and 
nailing  to  this  two  small  boards,  top  and  bottom,  one  for  a 
piazza  and  the  other  for  a  roof. 

Again,  in  many  localities  martins  will  readily  make  them- 
selves at  home ;  they  become  great  favorites  on  account  of 
their  grace  and  their  entertaining  habits.  Most  of  their  food 
they  get  on  the  wing.  They  are  accustomed  to  live  together 
in  larger  colonies  than  birds  of  less  powerful  flight,  and  so 
they  need  a  spacious  residence.  Being  so  conspicuous,  this 
needs  special  protection  ;  a  galvanized  iron  pipe  has  been 
found  to  make  an  excellent  standard  on  which  to  set  it,  the 
house  thus  being  completely  insulated  from  four-footed  visitors. 

On  the  whole,  the  best  style  of  bird  box  is  that  which  fur- 
nishes its  little  tenants  with  the  most  complete  shelter  from 
the  sun  and  storm.  This  can  be  secured  by  cutting  the  door- 
way to  the  bird's  own  measure,  and  also  by  placing  it  high  up 
under  the  projecting  roof.  The  door-size  for  a  chickadee,  for 
instance,  is  only  about  one  inch,  or  at  most  an  inch  and  a 
quarter,  in  diameter,  whereas  a  hole  seven  eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  exactly  fits  a  wren.  To  crows,  jays,  gray  squirrels, 
cats,  and  such  raiders  this  house  in  itself  would  then  signify 
a  polite  but  firm  "  No  admittance." 

Moreover,  the  projecting  roof  serves  a  further  purpose  in 
preventing  pussy  from  indulging  in  her  naughty  pastime  of 
reaching  in  and  clawing  out  the  birds  and  their  children. 
Where  bird  boxes  are  nailed  upon  poles  or  trees,  they  may  be 
made  puss-proof  by  means  of  a  sort  of  collar  of  wire  netting 
which  will  stand  out  at  right  angles  around  the  trunk  or  pole. 


SIDE  SHOWS  145 

A  clever  contrivance  is  to  arrange  the  projecting  roof  of 
each  bird  box  so  that  it  can  be  opened  and  closed,  and  by 
some  good  device  securely  fastened  down.  This  lid  will  allow 
the  children  to  peek  into  the  boxes  occasionally  and,  when 
necessary,  remove  nests  of  mice  and  other  robber  visitors. 
Various  devices  have  been  made  for  studying  the  nesting 
habits  of  birds  without  disturbing  them.  One  is  to  have  the 
side  of  the  box  arranged  as  a  door,  with  a  pane  of  glass  set 
behind  it  so  that  when  the  door  is  opened  the  birds'  behavior 
can  be  seen. 

Suppose  we  have  succeeded  in  providing  birds  with  satis- 
factory homes,  what  more  can  we  do  to  make  their  sojourn 
happy  ?  Probably  what  all  our  bird  guests  need  most,  whether 
they  are  transient  or  permanent,  is  an  abundant  supply  of 
water.  So  appreciative  are  they  of  any  little  pool  whatsoever, 
that  they  do  not  disdain  to  use,  either  for  drinking  or  for 
bathing,  a  battered  tin  pan  or  cracked  dish.  A  device,  how- 
ever, which  seems  to  suit  them,  and  which  at  the  same  time 
adds  to  the  attractiveness  of  a  garden,  consists  of  a  perfectly 
plain  granite  block,  with  its  upper  face  slightly  hollowed  so 
as  to  catch  the  rain. 

The  story  of  the  construction  of  a  bird  fountain  in  a  school 
yard  in  the  city  of  Worcester  has  already  interested  a  large 
circle  of  bird  lovers.  It  is  worth  repeating  on  account  of  the 
ingenuity  shown  in  designing  the  fountain,  and  also  because 
of  the  excellent  example  it  gives  of  how  a  school  and  the 
community  may  pull  together.  The  plan,  it  appears,  was 
worked  out  by  the  teachers  and  the  children.  First,  it  was 
necessary  to  get  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Education  ; 
then,  the  cost  having  been  estimated  at  fifty  dollars,  the  chil- 
dren, the  teachers,  and  all  their  friends  enlisted  to  help  raise 
the  sum.  The  contributions  were  many,  and  of  many  sorts. 
Volunteers  among  the  boys  dug  the  trenches  for  the  pipe  and 


146 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


for  the  stone  foundations  ;  the  expert  piping  was  done  by  the 
city  plumber ;  the  solid  gray  slabs  of  field  stone  were  presented 
by  Clark  University  to  its  infant  sister,  the  grade  school. 
A  teacher1  wrote  the  following : 

When  the  mason  began  his  work,  he  was  allowed  to  put  in  the  founda- 
tion as  he  thought  best,  but  after  that  he  placed  every  stroke  under  the 


THE   WORCESTER    BIRD    FOUNTAIN 


direction  of  those  whose  minds  held  a  completed  picture  of  the  fountain. 
The  mason  frankly  told  us  that  he  thought  he  should  not  care  to  carve 
his  name  on  the  fountain  as  its  builder,  but  he  followed  our  suggestions 
exactly,  and  after  a  day's  work  the  structure  was  finished. 

The  completion   of  this  interesting  structure  was  hailed 
with  joy.    Especially  after  the  carefully  planted  wild  flowers 

1  Miss  Edna  Thayer. 


SIDE   SHOWS  147 

began  to  peep  out  from  the  crevices  of  the  rough  stone,  it 
proved  to  be  an  object  of  real  beauty.  More  important  still, 
the  birds  recognized  it  as  their  own ;  and  best  of  all,  the  school 
yard,  through  this  service  to  the  birds,  became  the  center  of 
deep  neighborhood  interest,  the  dedication  of  the  fountain  to 
the  use  of  the  birds  being  an  occasion  of  high  festival. 

In  a  flower  garden  nothing  can  equal  the  effect  of  a  fountain 
or  a  quiet  pool.  It  is  convenient,  too,  for  watering  plants. 
There  need  be  no  fear  of  breeding  mosquitoes  if  a  few  fish 
are  put  in  to  eat  the  larvae. 

Again,  a  hive  or  two  of  bees  becomes  a  very  interesting 
feature  in  a  yard  or  garden.  The  situation  of  the  yard  mat- 
ters little,  for  these  wonderful  creatures  are  remarkably  inde- 
pendent of  their  immediate  surroundings  ;  the  hive  may  even 
be  kept  indoors,  so  long  as  the  bees  can  come  and  go, — with 
their  own  latchkey,  as  it  were.  The  experiment  of  keeping 
bees  was  tried  about  a  year  ago  in  a  certain  Boston  school. 
A  hive  was  fitted  neatly  into  a  window  in  the  third  story  of 
the  building,  so  that  the  bees  flew  industriously  in  and  out 
through  a  little  passageway  near  the  sill  the  whole  season 
long.  It  was  an  observation  hive  —  one  with  glass  sides  — 
set  up  by  a  group  of  schoolgirls  as  a  part  of  their  nature- 
study  course.  The  scheme  was  their  own  ;  theirs  too  the  ex- 
pense, amounting  in  all  to  several  dollars,  which  they  paid  out 
of  their  own  pocket  money.  It  amused  them,  they  said,  to 
see  how  many  people,  who  would  not  have  turned  to  look  at 
a  bee  on  a  dissecting  pin,  thought  nothing  of  running  up 
three  flights  to  see  a  bee  at  work.  An  observation  hive  is 
becoming  no  unusual  accessory  to  a  nature-study  equipment. 

Probably  a  still  more  unexpected  spot  for  a  visitor  to  find 
beehives  is  in  the  very  heart  of  London  town.  A  colony  of 
bees  now  adorns  what  is  probably  the  one  peaceful  nook  in 
the  noisy  and  once  notorious  district  of  Whitechapel.  It  is 


148  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

here  that  a  gray  and  ancient  churchyard  has  lately  been 
turned  into  a  recreation  ground  for  children.1  God's  acre,  as 
the  Germans  call  a  cemetery,  would  thus  seem  to  have  become 
God's  acre  in  very  truth.  This  charming  spot  includes  flower 
beds,  old  trees,  and  a  little  nature-study  museum.  Classes  of 
children  visit  this  garden  regularly,  and  with  the  help  of  a 
teacher  their  eyes  are  opened  to  the  wonder  of  the  natural 
objects  that  surround  them. 

In  various  home  schools  beekeeping  is  taken  up  more 
seriously  than  has  been  found  practical  in  day  schools.  The 
children  are  disciplined  by  the  responsibility,  and  they  learn 
something  of  this  useful  industry.  At  an  English  school,  for 
example,  situated  in  the  beautiful  region  of  Petersfield,  the 
writer  saw  five  prosperous  hives.  The  entire  care  of  these  was 
intrusted  to  the  boys  and  girls  ;  for  a  period  of  one  term  three 
or  four  pupils  took  charge.  Their  report  of  bee  culture  for  the 
summer  term,  published  in  their  school  paper,2  begins  thus  : 
"This  year  we  fed  the  bees  very  early,  giving  them  candy,  and 
so  they  were  in  splendid  condition  by  the  time  the  Dutch  clover, 
which  is  the  chief  honey  supply  in  this  district,  came  out." 

Then  follows  an  entertaining  account  of  the  methods 
employed  in  managing  the  brood,  introducing  a  new  queen, 
and  in  swarming,  the  text  being  supplemented  by  a  telling 
photograph  called  "  Hiving  the  Swarm."  The  report  ends 
with  a  close  estimate  of  the  total  yield  of  honey,  which  they 
expected,  that  season,  to  bring  up  to  one  hundred  pounds. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  an  interest  in  beekeeping,  if  awakened 
in  connection  with  school  gardening,  may  some  day  introduce 
a  lad  or  lass  into  an  occupation  that  will  bring  him  a  hand- 
some profit.  A  well-known  Cincinnati  man  makes  a  living 
from  bees  which  he  keeps  on  the  roof  of  his  house.  Another 
in  New  York  City,  one  of  the  large  dealers  in  beekeeping 

1  Miss  Susan  B.  Sipe,  Washington,  B.C.  2  Bedales  Record. 


SIDE   SHOWS  149 

supplies,  has  installed  several  colonies  on  the  roof  of  his 
warehouse.  This  great  building  looms  up  in  the  very  center 
of  traffic,  where  one  expects  to  find  business  humming,  to 
be  sure,  but  not  bees.  How  they  can  possibly  make  a  decent 
living  is  certainly  a  puzzle. 

With  these  and  similar  instances  in  mind  we  may  easily 
believe  Mr.  Benson1  when  he  says,  "  It  may  be  safely  said 
that  any  place  where  farming,  gardening,  or  fruit  raising  can 
be  successfully  followed  is  adapted  to  the  profitable  keeping 
of  bees."  It  would  be  hard  to  believe  that  any  one,  old  or 
young,  could  watch  the  daily  lives  of  these  mysterious  ani- 
mals without  being  set  a-thinking ;  and  those  children  who 
come  to  understand  the  social  life  going  on  within  a  hive, 
especially  if  they  have  tested  the  value  of  organization  in 
any  of  their  own  occupations,  can  hardly  fail  to  catch  what 
is  well  called  the  "  spirit  of  the  hive." 

To  some  persons  the  keeping  of  poultry  recommends  itself 
as  an  accessory  of  school  gardening,  although  the  line  would 
be  carefully  drawn  so  that  the  two  interests  should  not  clash, 
for  "  Chickens  in  the  garden!  "would  hardly  be  a  welcome 
cry.  Experiments  in  poultry  keeping  have  perhaps  been 
nowhere  more  successfully  made  than  at  Hyannis,  Massa- 
chusetts. Mr.  Baldwin  says: 

Certain  very  important  characteristics  which  were  not  suspected  from 
the  regular  school  work  were  clearly  manifest  in  the  poultry  house.  In 
fact,  enough  has  already  come  to  me  along  this  line  to  prove  that  here 
is  a  new  and  reliable  means  of  applying  practical  tests  and  of  helping 
students  to  see  and  correct  inherent  weaknesses.2 

Quite  a  different  sort  of  side  show,  which  may  be  undertaken 
by  a  young  gardener  sometime  during  his  career,  will  be  the 

1  Professor  O.  H.  Benson,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

2  W.  A.  Baldwin,  Poultry-Raising  as  a  School  Occupation. 


150  GARDENS  AND  THEIR   MEANING 

construction  of  a  simple  apparatus  for  measuring  rainfall. 
The  purpose  is  obviously  to  measure  the  depth  of  the  sheet 
of  water  that  would  lie  on  level  ground  after  a  rain,  suppos- 
ing that  none  of  the  water  were  lost  by  evaporation  or  by 
soaking  into  the  soil.  This  is  done  at  experiment  stations  by 
exposing  a  cylindrical  vessel,  or  rain  gauge,  to  the  storm,  and 
measuring  the  depth  of  rain  or  snow  that  it  receives.  A  good 
gauge  should  have  a  circular  rim  and  a  diameter  of  at  least 
five  or  six  inches.  The  edge  should  be  sharp,  with  a  vertical 
face  on  the  inside.  This  gauge  should  be  placed  in  a  level 
and  open  space,  some  distance,  if  possible,  from  trees  and 
buildings  (a  distance  at  least  twice  their  height  is  the  rule) ; 
then  it  should  be  fastened  in  place,  to  avoid  being  blown  over 
by  the  wind.  The  rim  should  stand  a  foot  above  the  ground, 
and  should  be  carefully  leveled.  A  movable  funnel  is  generally 
placed  within  the  gauge,  so  as  to  protect  the  water  that  lies 
beneath  it  from  loss  by  evaporation. 

At  a  station  the  measurement  of  the  amount  of  rain  col- 
lected is  usually  taken  by  pouring  the  water  from  the  gauge 
into  a  measuring  tube  of  a  certain  smaller  diameter,  so  that  its 
area  shall  be  one  tenth  of  that  of  the  gauge.  The  water  then 
rises  in  the  tube  to  ten  times  the  true  depth  of  the  rainfall. 
This  magnified  depth  is  then  measured  by  a  graduated  stick, 
the  record  being  made  to  a  hundredth  of  an  inch.  Record 
should  be  taken,  if  possible,  at  the  close  of  every  storm  and 
always  once  a  day,  although  some  observers  measure  the 
rainfall  only  at  a  certain  hour  each  day,  without  regard  to 
the  time  when  the  rainfall  ceased.  The  amount  measured 
should  always  be  entered  in  the  record  book  before  the 
measuring  tube  is  emptied.  Just  here  the  hint  of  an  expert 
gardener  may  well  be  followed.  "  Buy  a  barometer,"  he  says. 
"  By  obeying  a  few  simple  rules  you  will  be  able  to  forecast 
the  weather." 


SIDE   SHOWS  151 

That  woodworking  is  an  important  accessory  to  gardening 
has  already  been  shown  in  the  course  of  these  pages,  but  the 
extent  to  which  simple  carpentry  can  be  used  in  and  about 
a  garden  seems  almost  unlimited.  Boys  and  girls  can  learn 
to  construct  anything,  from  a  bird  house  to  a  greenhouse,  if 
they  care  to  try. 

In  certain  private  schools  the  laws  of  construction  and  the 
handling  of  tools  are  being  taught  not  so  much  by  graded 
school  exercises  as  by  actual  building.  The  director  of  one 
such  school 1  writes  :  "  We  will  build  and  place  our  own  fences, 
coops,  beehives,  outhouses,  boats,  and  sheds.  The  interest 
of  the  entire  school  in  the  progress  of  the  work  on  the  new 
boat,  or  the  greenhouse  that  may  be  building,  will  stimulate 
the  pupils  engaged  to  do  their  best.  Later  when  their  task 
is  done  and  the  product  in  actual  use,  it  will  be  a  daily 
reminder  of  the  dignity  and  worth  of  labor." 

Turning  aside  for  a  moment  from  matters  of  purely  eco- 
nomic interest,  we  may  consider  some  of  those  that  approach 
the  aesthetic.  A  delightful  feature  now  being  revived  from 
the  gardens  of  olden  times  is  the  sundial.  Young  people 
have  been  known  to  take  great  pleasure  in  one.  It  often 
has  a  subtle  charm  for  even  young  children.  One  writer 
recalls  with  what  awe  as  a  child  he  approached  the  first  sun- 
dial of  his  experience.  It  seemed  so  mysterious,  he  says,  — 
this  sentinel  of  light,  —  that  it  made  a  lasting  impression,  in 
which  the  garden  figured  as  a  little  fairy  world.2 

Sundials,  it  appears,  were  much  in  vogue  in  the  days 
of  good  Queen  Anne.  But  as  the  years  sped  on,  the  custom 
died  out,  except  when  friends  had  them  designed  for  each 
other  in  order  to  mark  in  unique  fashion  such  festivals  as 
birthdays.  George  Washington,  it  will  be  remembered,  took 

1  The  Interlaken  School. 

2  Loring  Underwood,  The  Garden  and  its  Accessories. 


152 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


great  pride  in  his  sundials.  He  is  said  to  have  had  three, 
one  of  which,  his  favorite,  was  placed  in  front  of  the  house 
at  Mount  Vernon. 

Fascinating  as  a  dial  undoubtedly  is  as  an  ornament  for  any 
grounds,  its  special  value  for  a  children's  garden  would  lie  in 


THE  SUNDIAL  IN  THE  GARDEN 


the  pleasure  of  designing  and  constructing  it.  There  are,  as 
we  know,  three  parts  to  a  dial :  a  base,  which  must  be  firm 
and  steady ;  a  simple  shaft ;  and,  topping  this,  the  dial  itself, 
consisting  of  a  face  and  the  accompanying  style.  The  style 
projects  at  an  angle  from  the  face,  and  thus  marks  the  time 


SIDE   SHOWS  153 

by  the  shadow  it  casts.  Every  part  can  be  made  at  home, 
although  a  dial  face  can  nowadays  be  bought,  if  one  chooses. 
The  steps  taken  in  making  one  dial  at  a  slight  cost  are  thus 
clearly  given  : 

"  The  pedestal  was  made  of  an  old  millstone  ;  upon  this 
was  a  concrete  pedestal.  Having  planned  the  proportions 
carefully,  the  core  of  the  pedestal  was  cut  out  of  wood,  wound 
with  chicken  wire  and  plastered  with  Portland  cement  and 
sand.  The  square  and  round  sections  for  the  base  and  cap 
were  cast  separately  and  the  whole  was  joined  with  cement 
and  water."  The  cost  of  materials  was  about  three  dollars,  ex- 
clusive of  the  dial  face,  which  may  be  obtained  for  two  dollars. 

The  dial,  however,  will  only  tell  the  correct  time  on  certain 
days  in  the  year ;  so  that  as  a  timepiece  it  of  course  leaves 
much  to  be  desired.  Indeed,  the  best  of  dials  are  right  only 
four  times  a  year, — April  15,  June  15,  September  I,  and 
December  24, — -when  "apparent  time"  and  "mean  time" 
happen  to  coincide.  But  its  persistent  disagreement  with  the 
clock  will  bring  in  many  an  inquiry  and  create,  perhaps,  a 
desire  to  know  some  of  the  facts  of  astronomical  geography. 
It  will  be  noticed,  for  instance,  that  the  upper  surface  of  the 
style  must  form  an  angle  with  the  horizon  corresponding 
to  the  degree  of  latitude  for  which  the  dial  is  designed ;  for 
example,  in  New  York  the  angle  will  be  40°.  The  hour 
marks  must  then  be  computed  for  different  latitudes,  and  the 
style  must  point  to  the  true  north,  that  is,  to  the  north  star. 

One  of  the  charms  of  a  sundial,  of  course,  is  that  it  will 
bear  a  motto.  Deciding  upon  a  motto  for  a  school  garden 
which  all  the  children  will  agree  upon  is  no  light  matter.  The 
mottoes  which  have  been  adopted  by  eminent  persons  make 
interesting  reading.  "  Come  light,  visit  me,"  was  cut  upon 
Harriet  Martineau's  dial.  A  motto  that  has  pleased  children 
runs  as  follows  :  "  My  face  marks  the  sunny  hours.  What 


154  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

can  you  say  of  yours  ?  "  Another  favorite  is,  "  Let  others  tell 
of  storms  and  showers  ;  I  '11  only  count  your  sunny  hours." 
Here  is  a  longer  one  too  good  to  be  omitted  : 

On  the  sundial  in  the  garden, 

The  great  sun  keeps  the  time ; 
A  faint,  small,  moving  shadow, 

And  we  know  the  worlds  are  in  rhyme. 

But  if  once  that  shadow  should  falter 

By  the  space  of  a  child's  eyelash, 
The  seas  would  devour  the  mountains, 

And  the  stars  together  crash.1 

Finally,  nobody  who  understands  children  will  fail  to  appre- 
ciate how  much  they  love  to  beautify  their  surroundings.  In 
a  garden,  for  instance,  although  they  may  have  announced 
it  as  their  firm  intention  to  plant  nothing  but  vegetables,  be- 
fore many  days  they  will  be  overheard  planning  for  at  least 
a  border  of  flowers.  An  excellent  way  to  learn  how  to  make 
flower  gardens  is  by  first  practicing  with  borders.  This  will 
lead  toward  the  planting  of  vines  for  backgrounds,  screens, 
and  cover-ups,  and  all  sorts  of  ambitious  schemes  will  follow. 

Certainly  a  garden  takes  a  long  stride  when,  having  begun 
its  existence  as  a  place  to  dig  and  delve  in,  it  consciously 
sounds  a  note  of  beauty  and  becomes  a  spot  truly  to  live  in. 
Grown-up  eyes  may  find  much  to  criticize,  but  whenever 
children  put  their  hearts  into  a  garden,  expressing  fearlessly 
their  ideas  of  beauty  in  terms  of  their  own,  the  place  cannot 
fail  to  grow  in  interest  and  charm.  To  the  children  them- 
selves, of  course,  their  garden  naturally  becomes  the  most 
enchanting  spot  in  the  world,  for  the  same  youthful  imagi- 
nation that  can  transform  an  old  tippet  into  "the  prettiest 
doll  in  the  world  "  finds  not  the  least  difficulty  in  turning  a 
scraggy  bit  of  land  into  a  perfect  paradise. 

1  Richard  Watson  Gilder. 


SIDE   SHOWS  155 

In  this  connection  certain  schemes  suggest  themselves 
which  are  sure  to  please  'children,  and  which  have  proved 
well  adapted  to  school  gardens.  A  little  arbor,  for  instance, 
or  a  pergola  thatched  with  leaves  that  cast  dappled  shadows 
on  the  even  paths,  or  the  simplest  of  summerhouses,  —  these 
are  sometimes  constructed  in  gardens  not  a  block  away  from 
the  clanging  cars.  A  summerhouse,  to  answer  every  purpose, 
does  not  need  to  be  a  large  and  spacious  structure  like  that 
which  the  Clinton  Park  children  enjoy  in  New  York.  No  car- 
penter ought  to  be  required  except  for  consultation.  Here  is 
offered,  in  fact,  the  very  occasion  where  the  children's  own 
woodworking  bench  comes  most  handy.  The  one  rule  to 
be  observed  now  and  always  is  that  every  bit  of  carpentry, 
however  rude,  should  be  built  not  in  fragile  and  earwiggy 
fashion  but  substantially  enough  to  withstand  the  stress  of 
the  weather  and  the  seasons.  Two  "  chunks  "  and  a  board, 
for  instance,  will  make  a  seat ;  and,  wonderful  to  relate,  a 
stump  is  transformed  into  a  table.  Such  woodworking  fan- 
cies, if  carried  out,  can  turn  a  sober,  homely  spot  into  a  real 
pleasure  ground. 

Properly  directed,  this  desire  for  outdoor  beauty  may  favor- 
ably react  upon  the  home.  In  the  hurry  and  rush  of  American 
life  many  phases  of  domestic  enjoyment  remain  incomplete. 
The  interior  of  the  house  itself  is  often  truly  a  world-famous 
example  of  modern  invention  and  convenience,  but  the  setting 
of  the  house  leaves  usually  much  to  be  desired.  According 
to  .the  "American  custom,"  each  city  and  suburban  house 
has,  of  course,  its  front  grassplot  shaven  and  shorn  into  im- 
maculate greenness,  and  conforming  as  exactly  as  possible  to 
that  of  its  neighbors.  The  little  lawn  may  be  broken  by  a 
border  of  flowers  or  a  bush  or  two,  but  it  is  seldom  improved 
by  a  haphazard  addition  of  this  sort.  Although  this  style  of 
yard  is  conventional  and  uninteresting,  still,  improvement  is 


156 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


rather  the  concern  of  the  trained  landscape  architect  than  of 
the  ambitious  young  fledgling,  so  that  one  would  be  rash 
indeed  in  these  few  pages  to  suggest  changes. 

Permit  us,  however,  to  take  a  look  at  the  back  yard.  This 
can  seldom  be  called  too  civilized  or  too  conventional.  On 
the  contrary,  it  remains  in  savagery.  Its  gods  are  apparently 
the  washtub  and  the  flapping  clothesline.  The  services  of 


A    LITTLE    BACK    YARD 


a  missionary  are  certainly  required.  So  little  are  the  possi- 
bilities of  a  back  yard  appreciated  that  a  proposition  to  make 
it  beautiful  has  many  a  time  been  greeted  with  derision.  That 
the  back  yard  is  probably  tiny  is  a  foregone  conclusion,  but 
so  was  the  old  Salem  garden  whose  summerhouse  is  thus 
described.  "  What  a  refreshing  sense  of  comfort  these  vine- 
covered  structures  gave  to  the  little  back-yard  gardens.  Here 
the  housewife  would  come  to  shell  peas  and  pare  apples,  or 
to  read  awhile  in  the  cool  shade  after  a  hot  fight  with  the 
unwelcome  weeds  of  the  garden.  And  the  children  of  the 


SIDE    SHOWS 


157 


household,  how  they  loved  this  miniature  bower  where  they 
could  play  at  '  keeping  house '  to  their  hearts'  content."1 

Crossing  the  water,  we  get,  if  possible,  more  glowing  pic- 
tures still.  Everybody  who  has  had  the  luck  to  peep  at  English 
gardens,  —  not  the  stately  ones  adjoining  great  manor  houses, 
but  those  snug  gardens  belonging  to  cottage  life,  —  must 
have  a  longing  to 
adapt  some  of  these 
ideas  to  the  Ameri- 
can yard.  The  idea 
would  be  more  far- 
reaching  than  merely 
the  production  of  a 
tangled  mass  of  green- 
ery, which  at  its  best 
harbors  a  swarm  of 
insects,  although  such 
a  thicket  in  the  land- 
scape is  doubtless  a 
step  in  advance  of 
mere  barren  wastes. 
But  our  English  cous- 
ins have  developed 
by  long  training  a 
rare  perception  for 
exactly  the  elements  that  produce  cosiness  and  comfort. 
Many  secrets  in  the  art  of  home  making  they  can  teach  a 
willing  learner.  Not  the  least  of  these  is  the  effective  use  of 
the  back  yard.  In  their  skillful  hands  the  back  yard  becomes 
the  outdoor  living  room,  a  real  withdrawing  room.  It  consti- 
tutes the  very  pivot  of  restful  life,  giving  charm  to  reading, 
sewing,  and  the  lighter  meals  of  the  day. 

1  Loring  Undenvood,  The  Garden  and  its  Accessories. 


HER    OWN    CRIMSON    RAMBLER 


158  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

One  English  garden  will  always  remain  to  the  writer  a 
delightful  memory.  It  lay  in  a  quite  impossible  district,  — 
an  arsenal  borough  of  greater  London.  The  straight-angled 
streets  were  walled  with  workmen's  cottages  two  stories  high 
and  of  a  depressing  sameness.  A  knock  at  the  street  door 
meant  an  invitation  to  step  across  the  threshold  and  go  through 
the  tiny  passage  over  a  second  threshold  out  into  the  garden. 
This  garden  covered  scarcely  more  square  feet  than  the  ground 
plan  of  the  scrap  of  a  house,  but  by  some  magic  an  atmosphere 
quiet  and  lovely  pervaded  the  spot.  The  din  of  the  street 
hardly  intruded  beyond  the  high  wall,  which,  softly  padded 
with  English  ivy,  inclosed  it  like  a  green  nest.  Next  came  the 
border  beds,  fairly  ablaze  with  tall  spikes  of  color.  A  little 
path  led  this  way  and  that,  and  coaxed  you  into  a  half-hidden 
arbor.  Across,  in  an  opposite  corner,  there  peeped  enticingly 
a  sunny  bit  of  kitchen  garden,  spicy  with  fresh  relishes  for 
the  table.  Involuntarily  one  drew  a  long  breath  of  satisfaction. 
For  a  moment  this  seemed  the  one  unhurried  spot  in  all  the 
bustling  world.  You  could  fancy  how  the  family  might  eagerly 
look  forward  to  a  break  in  the  afternoon's  work,  signaling  the 
appearance  of  the  much-loved  teapot  and  what  might  easily 
prove  the  most  precious  half-hour  of  the  day. 

Two  things  are  worth  looking  forward  to  in  American  life : 
the  leisure  to  plan  for  outdoor  comfort  and  beauty  and  the 
leisure  to  enjoy  these  when  once  they  are  secured.  Children 
will  help  their  elders  to  accomplish  this.  When  youngsters 
and  oldsters  combine,  and  with  one  accord  set  themselves  to 
learning  how  to  create  a  beautiful  outdoor  home,  whole 
families  are  easily  drawn  into  a  life  of  fuller  enjoyment  and 
attachment. 

Thus  one  side  show  suggests  another,  and  one  desire  kindles 
another,  until  by  and  by  the  whole  neighborhood  is  astir  with 
enterprises  and  becomes  a  brighter,  happier  place  to  live  in. 


CHAPTER  XI 

NEW  LIFE  IN  OLD  SUBJECTS 

"  The  old  gods  pass,  the  cry  goes  round, 
Lo !  how  their  temples  strew  the  ground, 
Nor  mark  we  where  on  new-fledged  wings 
Faith  like  the  phoenix  soars  and  sings." 

//  "  Education  is  developing  by  doing  real  things."  These 
words  have  the  familiar  ring  of  .an  old  song.  They  would  not 
bear  repetition  here  if  action  were  as  easy  as  speech.  In  spite 
of  the  best  of  theories  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  some  of  us 
are  still  preparing  our  young  people  for  a  life  that  lies  dimly 
ahead  of  them,  or  which  we  guess  lies  ahead  of  them,  instead 
of  marching  with  them  step  by  step  in  tune  with  the  life  that 
pulses  around  them. 

Just  as  far  as  a  child  is  left  to  experience  the  ups  and 
downs  of  life  alone,  isolated  in  spirit  from  his  elders,  just  so 
far  he  will  necessarily  be  self-taught  —  and  this  means  half 
taught  —  in  the  lessons  set  him  in  the  great  school  of  life. 
Is  it  strange  that  many  a  youth  becomes  submerged  by  the 
rush  of  new  experiences  ?  The  wonder  is  that  his  courage 
and  his  integrity  are  so  often  saved. 

In  the  schools  of  the  past,  as  a  matter  of  course,  academic 
questions  pure  and  simple  absorbed  both  teachers  and  stu- 
dents. There  are,  in  fact,  schools  still  existing  to-day  where 
classes  are  kept  busy  solving  mythical  problems  about  myth- 
ical butter  and  eggs  at  mythical  prices,  and  where  they  are 
still  practicing  the  art  of  composition  by  writing  acceptances 
to  imaginary  invitations  from  imaginary  cousins  at  the  antip- 
odes ;  in  a  word,  unregardful  of  the  real  things  going  on 


160  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

all  about  them,  these  young  people  are  constantly  kept  "sup- 
posing." There  are,  fortunately,  on  the  other  hand,  schools 
that  interweave  their  routine  with  children's  real  pursuits,  so 
that  it  is  hard  to  tell  where  school  leaves  off  and  a  child's 
free  life  begins. 

Roughly  speaking,  school  exercises  may  be  said  to  fall  into 
two  classes  :  one  made  up  of  the  tasks  which  spring  from 
real  issues,  the  other  consisting  of  the  tasks  set  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  acquiring  tools,  —  for  tools  are  useful  in  the 
execution  of  these  real  activities.  Spelling,  for  instance,  and 
handwriting  should  be  classed  among  tools  (both  of  which 
accomplishments  the  man  of  affairs  passes  over  to  his  type- 
writer), besides  a  large  share  of  the  mechanical  side  of  arith- 
metic. Tools  are  of  course  necessary;  on  occasion  a  tool 
may  rise  to  the  highest  importance.  The  desire  to  possess 
a  specific  tool  and  the  price  one  is  willing  to  pay  for  it  are 
conditioned  upon  the  seriousness  of  the  piece  of  work  whose 
success  is  at  stake  ;  in  other  words,  the  workman  prizes  his 
tool  and  learns  to  wield  it  effectively  according  to  the  value 
which  he  sets  upon  the  work. 

Is  it  assuming  too  much  to  believe  that  there  are  matters 
pertaining  to  education  which  vibrate  with  permanent  interest 
independent  of  clocks  and  bells  ?  Surely  not.  Skill  on  the 
part  of  the  educator  lies  in  not  letting  slip  any  opportunity  to 
utilize  a  single  one  of  these  permanent  interests.  He  is  be- 
coming every  day  more  keenly  alive  to  such  opportunities. 
That  this  is  everywhere .  increasingly  true  is  indicated  by  so 
obvious  a  sign  as  the  subjects  chosen  in  these  days  by  stu- 
dents for  their  themes.  Time  was  when  "  How  I  spent  my 
Vacation"  stood  nearly  alone  in  a  string  of  arid  titles  like 
"  The  Pleasures  of  Hope  "  or  that  classic  subject  "  Duty  per- 
formed is  a  Rainbow  in  the  Soul";  but  the  list  of  school 
themes  nowadays  reads  something  as  follows :  "  How  our 


NEW  LIFE   IN   OLD   SUBJECTS  161 

History  Class  came  to  act  'Julius  Caesar/  '  !f  The  Way  to  in- 
stall a  Salt-water  Aquarium,"  "  How  Two  Girls  found  a  Market 
for  their  Sweet  Peas."  Such  titles  indicate  no  fanciful  situa- 
tions ;  they  are  firmly  linked  to  the  children's  real  occupations. 
Let  us  see  if  this  is  not  so. 

HOW  I   EARNED   SOME   MONEY   LAST   SUMMER1 

After  the  ground  had  been  plowed  and  harrowed  and  I  had  raked 
over  a  piece  of  ground  about  seventy  feet  by  six  feet,  so  there  were  no 
big  lumps  in  it,  I  took  the  line  and  made  a  little  furrow  close  to  the  line. 
Then  I  scattered  the  seed  into  it,  making  five  such  rows  for  about  thirty 
feet,  and  only  two  rows  after  that  for  potatoes. 

Then  there  was  a  good  deal  of  watching  for  the  first  sign  of  the  plants. 
When  they  could  be  seen  easily,  I  went  up  and  down  the  rows  loosening 
the  soil,  so  that  they  could  grow  more  quickly.  I  planted  about  a  foot 
of  lettuce  then  later  on  I  transplanted  it  getting  about  fifty  cents  for  it. 

I  planted  about  thirty  feet  of  cauliflower.  When  they  became  large 
enough  to  transplant  I  dug  them  up  leaving  one  good  one  every  foot  and 
those  that  I  dug  up  I  sold  to  my  father  for  one  half  a  cent  each.  I  sold 
him  about  seven  hundred  so  I  earned  three  dollars  and  a  half.  When 
they  were  large  enough,  I  tied  the  outer  leaves  and  sold  them.  When  the 
heads  were  nicely  bunched  and  solid  I  got  about  two  dollars  for  them. 

I  had  also  planted  some  beets  but  they  were  ill-fated.  The  man  was 
cultivating  some  of  father's  trees  and  cultivated  them  under.  I  planted 
some  more  but  they  were  taken  for  beet  greens  while  I  was  away.  The 
weeds  grew  pretty  fast  but  with  half  an  hour  a  day  they  were  soon 
conquered,  then  onions  and  carrots  brought  me  some  money,  perhaps 
four  dollars. 

Then  there  was  another  way  of  earning  money  and  that  was  by  pick- 
ing berries.  I  got  two  cents  a  quart  and  a  backache  for  picking  straw- 
berries and  earned  about  four  dollars  in  all  for  them.  For  raspberries 
I  got  two  cents  a  pint.  I  earned  about  three  dollars  for  them.  In  all 
I  earned  for  my  summer's  work  seventeen  dollars. 

Among  all  the  subjects  acceptable  for  school  exercises, 
gardening  takes  high  rank  in  introducing  practical  issues.  It 

1  School  composition  passed  in  by  Beatrice  Field. 


162 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


has  proved  itself  a  real  force  in  education  on  account  of 
these  very  "  connecting  qualities."  In  other  words,  it  makes 
a  capital  bridge,  the  academic  end  of  which  is  to  be  found 
in  the  seclusion  of  the  school,  while  the  other  end  reaches 
into  the  very  midst  of  the  bustling  world.  Like  a  little 

whirlpool  the  school 
draws  into  its  sacred 
precincts  the  social 
activity  and  the  hard 
sense  of  the  market 
and  of  the  street ;  and 
on  the  other  hand 
men  of  affairs  are 
showing  every  day 
that  not  all  the  good 
teaching  in  the  world 
is  being  done  in  the 
schoolroom  or  by  a 
teacher.  In  garden- 
ing, the  verdict  as  to 
whether  things  are 
fit  to  eat,  or  to  sell, 
makes  a  welcome 
substitute  for  the  old- 
time  marking  system. 
However  stiff  a  test 
this  may  be,  it  is  at  the  same  time  so  stimulating  that  one 
begins  to  wish  that  all  the  products  of  a  school  were  of  such 
a  nature  that  they  might  be  carried  to  market. 

Another  advantage  in  the  pursuit  of  gardening  is  that  it 
does  not  limit  itself  to  a  neighborhood,  to  a  township,  or 
even  to  a  continent ;  the  interest  is  spread  far  and  wide. 
The  tidal  wave  of  modern  gardening  is  felt  round  the  world. 


ARE  THESE  READY  FOR  MARKET? 


NEW  LIFE   IN   OLD   SUBJECTS  163 

It  appeals,  moreover,  to  both  young  and  old,  —  to  the  school- 
girl, to  the  business  man  as  an  avocation,  to  the  woman  as  a 
means  of  livelihood  in  her  suburban  home. 

Grown  people  will  naturally  gravitate  into  some  specialty 
that  peculiarly  attracts  them.  Whatever  the  undertaking,  it  is 
reasonable  to  expect  them  to  excel  in  matters  requiring  expe- 
rience and  judgment ;  but  we  should  not  forget  that  children 
have  their  preferences  and  their  line  of  superiority  as  well. 
They  are  the  ones  who  see  things  at  a  flash.  Often  they 
go  far  ahead  of  their  elders  in  keen-eyed  discovery,  —  and  a 
discovery  surely  has  its  intrinsic  worth,  whether  made  by  a 
professor  or  a  kindergarten  child.  It  is  the  selfsame  fable 
of  the  Mountain  and  the  Squirrel  that  is  every  day  being 
enacted  in  one  form  or  another. 

"  If  I  'm  not  so  large  as  you, 
You  are  not  so  small  as  I, 
And  not  half  so  spry.  .  .  . 
If  I  cannot  carry  forests  on  my  back, 
Neither  can  you  crack  a  nut." 

And  surely  in  the  gardening  world  every  one  finds  his  niche. 
But  however  desirable  it  might  seem  to  add  gardening  to 
a  scheme  of  liberal  education,  the  daily  program  for  every 
school  day  stubbornly  resists ;  it  is  brimming  full  and  running 
over.  Enthusiasts  must  therefore  bring  sober  proof  that  the 
time  which  gardening  takes  from  conventional  study  is  not 
merely  time  well  invested,  but  that  it  can  enrich  by  a  sub- 
stantial dividend  these  very  subjects.  One  thing  is  constantly 
being  demonstrated  :  it  is  that  trying  to  carry  on  success- 
fully even  the  simplest  garden  kindles  the  desire  for  precise 
knowledge.  It  is  only  too  true  that  without  the  habit  of  ex- 
actness the  gardener  finds  before  long  that  he  is  playing  a 
losing  game.  He  sees  that  he  may  as  well  stop  competing  if 
he  cannot  acquire  skill  enough  to  hold  his  own.  This  does 


164  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

not  refer  to  manual  skill  alone,  or  even  to  technical  garden 
lore,  but  to  skill  in  some  other  matters  not  so  self-evident. 
To  illustrate :  he  must  master  the  art  of  figures,  of  measure- 
ments, and  of  calculation.  In  trying  quickly  to  get  the  ABC 
of  a  business  situation  the  bearing  of  mathematics  upon  his 
present  task  all  at  once  dawns  upon  him.  What  does  it 
signify  if  up  to  this  time  arithmetic  has  been  the  most  cor- 
dially hated  subject  in  the  curriculum  ?  The  exercises  that 
teach  him  exactness  must  be  mastered.  Upon  this  ground, 
if  on  no  other,  mathematics  justifies  itself  even  in  the  mind 
of  the  beginner.  Certain  parts  of  the  arithmetic  get  learned 
from  the  very  pressure  of  pure  interest. 

Not  all  the  subjects  included  in  the  school  arithmetic  would 
probably  be  needed  in  the  gardening  of  a  single  grade  during 
the  season  ;  square  root,  for  instance,  would  hardly  be  re- 
quired. Look  through  the  textbook  and  check  off  one  by 
one  the  various  subjects  that  have  been  dealt  with  as  the 
result  of  the  demand  of  a  garden  ;  it  is  a  surprise  to  find  how 
many  are  included.  A  committee  of  teachers,  who  lately  met 
to  compare  their  experiences,  unanimously  agreed  upon  two 
points  :  that  a  curiously  large  proportion  of  the  arithmetic 
usually  assigned  to  a  child's  school  course  is  positively  re- 
quired in  garden  work,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  gar- 
den furnishes  an  extraordinary  number  of  practical  problems 
illustrating  mathematical  principles  and  rules.  One  teacher 
gives  her  experience  in  these  words  :  "  The  correlation  of 
arithmetic  with  the  garden  work  is  positively  necessary.  The 
large  garden  has  to  be  divided  into  individual  gardens  whose 
areas  are  alike.  As  these  may  be  square,  oblong,  or  triangu- 
lar, it  takes  quite  a  bit  of  arithmetic  to  equalize  them.  Then 
the  problem  work  used  in  the  class  can  be  based  on  the  pro- 
ductions, the  outlay,  and  the  gain.  To  have  the  problems  real 
makes  the  reasoning  processes  easier." 


NEW  LIFE   IN    OLD   SUBJECTS  165 

A  list  compiled  by  a  small  company  of  teachers  included 
the  following  subjects:  long,  square,  and  cubic  measures  (with 
constant  practice  in  mensuration),  liquid  and  dry  measures,  and 
weights ;  the  measurement  of  time  by  clock  and  sundial ;  the 
use  of  the  thermometer  and  barometer  ;  percentage,  averages ; 
tabulating  by  curves ;  calculation  of  the  amount  of  material 
needed  for  given  areas,  such  as  fertilizers,  seeds,  and  bulbs, 
to  be  distributed  at  different  intervals  in  a  specified  area ; 
drawing  to  a  scale  ;  the  understanding  of  geometric  forms 
and  facts.  In  addition  there  may  be  included  the  intricacies 
of  business  arithmetic,  such  as  the  handling  of  money ;  keep- 
ing a  cash  account ;  bookkeeping ;  bills,  receipts,  and  checks ; 
interest  and  commission  ;  the  reading  of  market  quotations 
as  a  basis  for  figuring  and  for  fixing  prices.  A  person  could 
probably  go  through  life  very  well  if  only  so  much  arithmetic 
as  this  were  thoroughly  learned  and  "  lived." 

More  valuable  even  than  facility  and  practice  in  arithmetic 
may  be  counted  the  development  of  the  business  sense  and 
a  timely  initiation  into  honorable  business  methods.  The 
prudent  buyer  and  the  honest  seller  are  the  stuff  out  of  which 
good  citizens  are  made.  Nowhere  may  integrity  be  shown 
more  conspicuously  than  in  packing  goods  skillfully  and  label- 
ing them  truthfully ;  in  just  this  work  there  will  be  shown 
the  advantage  of  earning  a  reputation  for  square  dealing.  We 
may  remember  in  this  connection  that  the  Father  of  our 
Country,  as  a  young  man,  had  the  reputation  of  growing  the 
best  tobacco  in.  Virginia,  and  that  barrels  of  flour  marked 
G.  W.  were  suffered  to  enter  foreign  ports  without  inspection. 

Business,  furthermore,  must  often  be  done  through  cor- 
respondence. There  are  various  types  of  the  conventional 
business  letter.  Every  scholar,  before  he  leaves  school,  is 
supposedly  equipped  with  a  formula  with  which  to  meet  the 
emergencies  in  letter  writing  that  are  likely  to  arise.  Some 


166  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

of  the  models  put  before  scholars  conform,  indeed,  faultlessly 
to  the  standard  of  the  polite  letter  writer ;  and  yet  the 
notes  received  by  business  houses,  so  we  understand,  are 
often  as  void  of  personality  as  an  empty  clamshell.  Perhaps 
there  is  often  "too  much  model,"  and  in  all  probability  the 
young  applicant  has  never  had  any  practice  in  framing  an 
actual  letter.  There  is  certainly  no  reason  why  a  note  written 
under  real  conditions  should  lack  personality.  In  order  to 
learn  to  write  a  good  letter,  two  things  are  imperative:  a 
genuine  purpose  and  plenty  of  practice.  Gardening  will 
never  fail  to  supply  both  of  these  conditions. 

"  Early  in  the  spring,"  writes  a  city  teacher,  "as  soon  as 
seed  catalogues  were  advertised,  each  child  wrote  his  own 
real  letter  asking  for  a  catalogue,  addressed  it  and  mailed  it. 
It  was  in  many  cases  the  first  letter  they  had  ever  sent.  Of 
course  their  letters  were  inspected  as  to  writing,  spelling,  and 
punctuation.  Then  for  our  regular  writing  lesson  the  copy 
written  on  the  board  was  often  either  some  garden  maxim,  as 
'  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines,'  *  Take  care  of  your  garden 
and  your  garden  will  take  care  of  you '  (there  is  a  variety  of 
these  in  '  Poor  Richard's  Almanac '),  or  such  sentences  as  'The 
beans  are  all  up.'  7onn's  garden  has  no  weeds,'  and  so  on." 

The  letters  demanded  in  garden  correspondence  are  of  all 
sorts,  but  they  will  often  be  in  the  line  of  asking  advice  and 
acknowledging  attention  and  kindnesses.  Correspondence  will 
sometimes  be  carried  on  with  persons  occupying  official  posi- 
tions. An  answer  from  a  public  man  or  his  secretary  will  be 
eagerly  watched  for ;  its  arrival  rewards  any  youngster  for  all 
the  pains  expended  upon  the  original  letter.  These  replies 
are  often  preserved  among  the  garden  records ;  sometimes 
the  most  distinguished  ones  are  framed.  To  earn  an  answer, 
young  people  learn  that  a  note  must  possess  certain  charac- 
teristics :  it  must  be  clearly  and  correctly  phrased  ;  it  may  not 


NEW  LIFE   IN    OLD   SUBJECTS 


I67 


in  any  way  suggest  bluff ;  and  yet  it  must  have  carrying 
power,  —  that  is,  every  word  must  ring  with  sincerity,  —  and 
the  writer  must  bear  the  marks  of  being  a  young  person  whom 
it  will  pay  to  bother  about.  The  way  to  seem  worth  while  is  to 
be  worth  while ;  that  means  constantly  doing  things  that  are 
worth  while.  Establishing  such  connections  with  older  per- 
sons on  common  ground  has  no  equal  for  arousing  ambition. 

Having  once  entered  into 
actual  relationships  with  per- 
sons at  a  distance  and  united 
by  a  common  interest,  make- 
believe  letter  writing  seems 
tame  indeed.  The  teacher 
usually  does  not  half  realize 
how  much  of  a  farce  such  ex- 
ercises seem  to  his  students. 
Not  very  long  ago,  in  a  cer- 
tain preparatory  school  where 
the  value  of  practice  in  writ- 
ing letters  to  real  persons  had 
been  duly  recognized,  it  was 
required  during  the  spring 
recess  that  each  boy  should 
send  a  letter  to  the  teacher 
of  English  composition.  This 
task  was  described  by  one  of  the  boys  to  his  amused  family 
in  these  words  :  "  No  mistakes  in  spelling,  no  mistakes  in 
grammar,  no  mistakes  in  punctuation,  no  blots,  no  slang,  — 
no  answer!  "  Hardly  an  exercise,  it  will  be  agreed,  to  make 
a  boy  love  letter  writing. 

Another  method  is  to  let  the  young  people  of  a  school  ex- 
change letters  with  those  of  a  distant  school.  Letters  upon 
historical  topics,  for  instance,  fly  to  and  fro  between  the 


WRITING    TO    COUSIN    EMILY 
ABOUT    MY    HERHS 


168  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

history  classes  in  a  Massachusetts  high  school 1  and  a  school 
near  London.  May  not  gardening  supply  quite  as  interesting 
matter  for  correspondence  as  history  ?  It  may  be  claimed 
that  writing  reports  and  keeping  diaries  of  garden  proceed- 
ings afford  enough  daily  practice  and  real  material  without 
letter  writing.  Both  reports  and  diaries  certainly  call  for  clear 
and  ready  expression ;  but  the  drawback  to  such  exercises 
usually  is  that  they  become  in  matter  lifeless  and  in  form 
careless,  unless  they  spring  from  a  genuine  reason  for  writ- 
ing, and  for  writing  well. 

This  is  but  natural.  Let  us  analyze  the  situation  fora  mo- 
ment from  the  grown-up  point  of  view.  Nothing  inspires 
any  human  being  more  than  reading  to  those  who  want  to 
hear,  writing  to  those  who  want  to  read,  and  talking  to  those 
who  want  to  listen.  So  the  audience  voluntarily  chosen  by 
any  one,  young  or  old,  would  bar  out  the  class  of  persons 
who  listen,  seemingly,  for  the  sake  of  pouncing  upon  a  mis- 
take ;  but.  it  would  include  everybody  who  listens  with  true 
earnestness.  Some  of  us  can  duplicate  the  experiences  of  a 
distinguished  professional  man  who  for  years  has  been  in  the 
habit  of  laying  his  most  intimate  plans  before  an  elderly 
friend  of  singularly  lofty  ideals  and  of  a  rarely  sympathetic 
temperament.  He  attributes  his  success  to  her.  Said. he: 
"She  makes  me  say  better  things  than  I  ever  dreamed.  And 
then  to  be  consistent  I  simply  must  follow  them  up  in  action." 

The  vitality  which  gardening  can  put  into  the  subject  of 
geography  cannot  for  a  moment  be  doubted.  Next  to  explor- 
ing strange  lands  one's  self  comes  the  privilege  of  seeing  the 
world  at  second  hand  by  associating  distant  spots  with  friends. 
Friends  are  often  scattered  abroad  in  many  climes.  Are  not 
plants  friends  ?  If  so,  bulbs  carry  us  across  to  Holland  or  to 
Puget  Sound,  formal  gardens  to  Italy,  cooperative  gardens 
to  Denmark. 

1  Charlestown  High  School. 


169 


I/O  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

It  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  raise  cereals,  hemp,  and 
flax  expressly  for  the  geography  classes.  One  teacher1  offers 
a  list  of  five  plants  which  in  her  school  have  proved  particu- 
larly valuable.  These  are  hemp,  tobacco,  flax,  peanuts,  and 
rice.  She  says  :  "In  connection  with  the  hemp  growing  of 
Russia  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  planting  of  hemp  seed 
became  a  highly  desirable  thing.  The  interesting  young  plants 
were  eagerly  watched  and  tended.  The  vigorous  plant,  with  its 
strong,  unusual,  and  beautiful  foliage,  attracted  general  admi- 
ration. Its  rapid  growth  and  great  size  were  enthusiastically 
noted.  In  the  fall  the  plant  was  studied  carefully,  the  stems 
being  pulled  apart  and  a  kind  of  rope,  of  the  long,  tough  fibers, 
made  in  the  classroom  by  the  boys.  This  led  easily  to  lessons 
on  rope  making,  kinds  of  rope,  and  the  various  uses  of  rope." 

We  should  certainly  expect  the  growers  of  plants  to  be 
the  ones  who  could  best  arrange  flowers  and  fruits,  whether 
for  home  enjoyment  or  for  sale.  What  eyes  could  possibly 
discern  more  quickly  and  display  more  lovingly  the  best  fea- 
tures of  their  products  ?  Fruits  often  decorate  a  room  or  a 
dinner  table  more  effectively  than  flowers.  At  exhibitions  the 
art  of  arranging  fruit  and  flowers  receives  distinct  recognition. 
It  calls  out  special  talent  and  demands  special  training.  On 
these  occasions  prizes  are  sometimes  offered  for  excellence 
in  this  respect  alone. 

"In  our  school  building,"  writes  a  seventh-grade  teacher, 
' '  the  children  supply  the  drawing  teacher  with  flowers  for 
her  lessons*  during  the  season.  We  asked  her  beforehand 
what  she  would  like  to  have  us  plant,  since  some  plants  were 
more  desirable  than  others  for  her  work.  These  were  used 
in  sketching,  designing,  and  in  the  color  work." 

It  is  a  short  step  from  garden  to  kitchen.  In  gardening 
the  schoolgirl  finds  opportunities  which  belong  almost  wholly 

1  Miss  Elizabeth  Mailman,  Rice  School. 


NEW   LIFE    IN    OLD    SUBJECTS 


I/I 


to  herself,  for  in  addition  to  the  general  crops  which  interest 
all  there  are  certain  products  which  find  their  way  straight  to 
the  school  kitchen.  It  is  she  who  collects  the  grains  and  other 
foodstuffs  for  the  kitchen  laboratory.  She  stores  savories 
and  garnishes ;  she  triumphs  with  the  preserving  kettle.  A 
row  of  jars  reveal 
their  opalescent  con- 
tents and  bear  witness 
to  her  housewifely 
skill.  In  one  school, 
fruit  from  the  garden 
was  preserved  and 
sold  at  the  recent 
fair  for  the  Teachers 
Mutual  Benefit  Fund.1 
What  is  more  natural 
than  that  the  success- 
ful grower  of  vege- 
tables should  wish  to 
see  these  safely  sim- 
mering on  the  stove  ? 
An  enthusiast  on  the 
cooking  of  vegetables 
may  shed  a  glamour 
over  the  most  com- 
monplace cooking. 

The  cooking  of  greens,  for  example,  is  raised  to  the  level 
of  an  art.  "  Some  cooks  add  a  little  water  when  placing 
them  over  the  fire,  but  others  heat  them  gently  to  draw  the 
juices  out  of  the  leaves.  In  either  case  the  leaves  should 
be  cooked  only  till  tender,  and  should  be  a  good  green, 


WILL  THESE  DO  FOR  THE  DRAWING  LESSON  ? 


1  Miss  Anne  Withington,  Report  of  the  Boston  School  Garden  Com- 
mittee, 1905. 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

not  of  a  washed-out,  brownish  tinge.  A  small  amount  of  salt 
may  or  may  not  be  added  before  cooking.  Authorities  differ 
on  this  point,  but  I  have  used  both  methods  and  prefer  to 
add  salt  after  the  vegetable  is  cooked.  Cabbage  should  be 
boiled  in  salted  water  of  212°  heat."  1 

It  is  not  strange  that  nature  study  and  the  beginning  of 
scientific  pursuits  should  get  their  strongest  impulse  from 
gardening.  It  is  said  that  all  the  nature  study  a  child  needs 
can  be  learned  by  working  in  a  garden.  Some  believe  that 
this  is  claiming  too  much  ;  but  are  not  those  who  object 
usually  the  ones  who  have  taken  gardening  in  a  literal  and 
narrow  sense  ?  There  are  certainly  moments  when  it  seems 
to  a  teacher  as  though  the  garden  lay  at  the  very  heart  of  the 
world  of  science,  so  many  truly  scientific  impulses  have  been 
known  to  begin  or  end  there.  As  a  source  of  material  for 
study,  it  certainly  does  not  run  dry ;  the  animals  and  plants 
that  jostle  one  another  in  a  tiny  space  are  likely  to  confuse 
a  pupil  by  their  very  abundance  and  variety.  Again,  the 
problems  suggested  in  a  plot,  however  small,  are  universal 
problems.  Wheref  indeed,  can  be  seen  more  strikingly  the 
effect  of  environment,  or  the  survival  of  the  fittest  ? 

Bypaths,  such  as  studies  of  spiders,  of  fungi,  or  of  our 
native  shrubs  and  trees,  ar-e  all  possibilities  which,  sighted 
through  some  garden  experience,  may  be  opened  up  to  the 
young  gardeners.  A  hand-to-hand  conflict  with  pests  makes 
children  see  the  advantage  of  a  knowledge  of  animals  and  -of 
a  collection  of  insects  for  study.  As  a  result,  a  taste  for  nat- 
ural history  begins  to  bud.  A  small  collection,  including  at 
first  only  "local  celebrities,"  quickly  outgrows  its  original 
cases,  and  some  day  the  delivery  of  a  mysterious  package, 
plastered  all  over  with  Brazilian  stamps,  records  the  fact  that 
rare  beetles  have  arrived  for  a  boy's  really  valuable  collection. 

1  Edith  Loring  Fullerton,  The  Vegetable  Garden. 


NEW  LIFE  IN  OLD  SUBJECTS  173 

But  even  suppose  for  a  moment  that  nature  were  less 
lavish,  is  it,  then,  the  amount  of  material  that  determines 
the  effectiveness  of  study  ?  On  the  contrary,  have  not  the 
great  teachers  of  biology  always  laid  stress  upon  the  ideas  of 
science  and  the  methods  of  science?  And  have  they  not,  on 
the  whole,  opposed  as  a  mischievous  and  unscientific  practice 
the  accumulation  of  myriads  of  facts,  which,  in  their  confu- 
sion, not  only  fail  to  reveal,  but  which  cloud  the  truth  ?  As 
a  rule  these  masters  of  science,  resolutely  eliminating  side 
issues,  put  before  their  students  a  few  carefully  selected  car- 
dinal type  forms.  They  trusted  in  the  principle  that  through 
patient,  hard-won  intimacy  with  the  mechanism  of  some  type 
organism,  —  an  earthworm,  it  might  be,  a  fern,  or  a  fish, 
—  a  student's  scientific  power  would  reveal  itself ;  and  so 
indeed  it  proved. 

To  further  answer  those  who  worry  lest  boys  and  girls 
may  confine  their  attention  to  mere  marigolds  and  beans,  it 
may  be  that  they  have  not  found  out  by  experience  that  when 
children  start  on  a  seemingly  easy  quest  they  become,  before 
they  know  it,  lost  in  a  maze  of  side  issues.  One  step  leads 
to  another,  much  like  the  chronicle  of  "The  House  that  Jack 
built."  To  illustrate  :  The  gyrations  of  a  cabbage  caterpillar 
once  led  a  class  to  a  dispute  in  regard  to  caterpillars  and 
their  -uses ;  then  to  the  value  of  the  silkworm ;  then  to  the 
silk  industry  and  its  history,  including  the  display  of  raw 
materials ;  then  to  an  ingenious  demonstration  of  methods  of 
manufacture,  which  involved  investigation  by  reading  and 
correspondence ;  then  to  the  further  study  of  the  habits  and 
customs  of  the  silk  caterpillar ;  then,  on  the  part  of  one  of 
the  company,  to  a  day's  journey  to  the  city  of  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, where,  at  that  time,  in  the  School  of  Horticulture, 
these  caterpillars  were  flourishing  on  the  mulberry  trees 
planted  for  them.  Next  followed  a  scheme  for  raising  a 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

colony  in  the  children's  own  gardens.  The  same  class  was 
allured  to  study  useful  birds  and  their  preservation,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  indignation  caused  by  the  rascality  of  the  English 
sparrow  in  their  own  gardens. 

Overwhelmed,  in  fact,  by  the  richness  of  suggestion,  the 
teacher  finds  himself  at  the  parting  of  the  ways.  He  must 
either  set  his  face  resolutely  against  all  spontaneous  adven- 
ture or  he  must  explore  with  his  children  hitherto  untraveled 
lands.  In  pursuit  of  the  knowledge  for  which  they  hunger, 
he  is  driven  to  undertake  many  a  bit  of  research  on  his  own 
account.  One  teacher,  struck  with  the  humor  of  the  situation, 
tells  amusing  tales  of  a  term  during  which  she  was  literally 
whipped  on  to  fresh  study  by  her  energetic  scholars.  There 
were  at  least  a  dozen  "  specialties  "  running  at  the  same  time 
in  that  class.  One  happened  to  be  the  gypsy  moth,  whose 
habits  some  girls  wished  to  study  in  field  and  laboratory  in 
the  most  thoroughgoing  fashion.  Their  enthusiasm  dragged 
her  over  hill  and  dale.  Little  did  they  guess  through  what  a 
stiff  course  of  discipline  in  investigation  they  were  putting 
their  somewhat  distracted  teacher. 

This  intensive  nature  study,  inevitable  when  children  are 
following  to  a  logical  conclusion  the  curiosity  which  the  gar- 
den itself  has  stirred,  may  be  deliberately  contrasted  with  the 
skimming  process  necessitated  by  many  a  "quite  perfect" 
course  of  study  for  graded  classes.  Is  it  exaggerating  to  say 
that  any  course,  no  matter  in  what  subject,  which  is  fully 
elaborated  and  crystallized  is  bound  to  be  archaic  ?  For  if  by 
chance  one  little  bud  of  interest  begins  to  unfold,  it  will  be 
only  too  promptly  nipped  by  some  of  the  well-known  frosts  of 
the  schoolroom.  Desire  to  know  is  quickly  blighted  by  such 
words  as  "  We  must  hurry  on,"  or  by  the  dread  of  inter- 
mittent examinations  where  rank  depends  upon  memorizing 
facts.  A  little  thought  reveals  the  fact  that  if  heterogeneous 


NEW  LIFE   IN   OLD   SUBJECTS  175 

details  and  superficial  methods  are  ever  out  of  place,  they  are 
peculiarly  foreign  to  the  first  steps  of  science. 

The  naturalist,  with  the  vast  resources  of  the  world  spread 
out  before  him,  may  properly  scorn  the  need  of  having  at 
his  tongue's  end  an  explanation  of  every  phenomenon  of  the 
universe.  He  often  finds  satisfaction  in  saying  with  a  royal 
air  that  he  does  not  know.  This  is  far  from  being  the  usual 
attitude  of  the  teacher ;  it  is  more  like  that  of  the  rural  peddler 
who,  till  he  knows  his  countryside,  cannot  possibly  carry  in  his 
pack  half  of  what  his  customers  demand,  but  who,  if  once 
he  gets  a  chance  to  spread  out  his  wares,  can  show  that  he 
is  anything  but  a  fraud  or  a  failure ;  every  one  then  begins  to 
wonder  how  in  one  small  space  he  can  have  packed  away  a 
stock  so  admirable  and  so  well  arranged.  Could  any  one  in 
his  place  do  better  ?  Then  with  true  cleverness  he  sees  to  it 
that  on  the  next  round  he  is  fully  equipped. 

It  is  apt  to  be  just  the  opposite,  however,  with  the  nature- 
study  teacher.  A  slave  to  tradition,  he  feels  in  a  measure 
bound  to  pose  as  infallible.  So,  regardless  of  what  is  wanted 
by  his  students,  he  makes  it  his  business  to  lug  about  with 
him  as  many  facts  as  possible,  forcing  them  upon  his  pupils 
at  every  provocation.  That  is  really  why  in  so  many  instances 
nature  study  has  proved  either  very  "  thin  "  or  very  unpopular/ 
Suppose,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  sustained  by  the  belief  that 
he  can  keep  his  self-respect,  even  thougn  he  may  not  carry 
every  trifle  about  with  him,  the  true  teacher  is  spurred  to  do 
his  best  in  supplying  real  needs;  and  he  will  have  the  wit  to 
replenish  his  pack  of  knowledge,  on  request,  to  everybody's 
satisfaction,  and  be  in  the  meanwhile  as  merry  as  the  peddler. 

The  words  "  scientific  research  "  and  "  scientific  method  " 
may  seem  pompous  terms  to  use  in  educating  youngsters ;  they 
certainly  will  so  appear  to  any  one  who  associates  the  phrases 
with  nothing  less  intricate  than  a  compound  microscope.  But 


176  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

the  scientific  method  simply  means  the  path  by  which  a 
person  arrives  at  first-hand  truth  about  the  natural  world.  It 
means  inquiring  of  Nature  how  her  processes  go  on.  It  means, 
not  thinking  at  a  superior's  command,  but  thinking  to  satisfy 
an  inner  purpose  whose  fulfillment  brings  its  own  best  reward. 
It  teaches  how  to  estimate  a  guess  —  a  working  hypothesis 
—  at  its  true  value,  and  how  to  prick  the  bubble  of  a  sham. 
Some  of  its  results,  as  shown  in  everyday  living,  are  patience, 
simplicity,  and  sincerity. 

The  examination  of  evidence  from  many  sources  leads  to 
the  conviction  that  by  allying  a  garden  with  the  time-honored 
subjects  in  schools,  academic  work  may  be  greatly  enriched. 
Instead  of  robbing  these  studies  of  so  many  golden  minutes, 
the  garden  may  kindle  a  fresh  and  unquenchable  desire  for 
their  pursuit.  Yet  what  adventurer  will  expect  to  step  aside 
from  the  beaten  path  without  getting  into  a  tangle  of  diffi- 
culties ?  One  very  common  obstacle  which  some  allow  to 
deter  them  may  easily  be  anticipated.  A  piece  of  industrial 
and  social  work  like  the  garden,  used  as  a  practice  ground  for 
other  studies,  disturbs  the  peace  of  a  cut-and-dried  program. 
Although  it  is  a  positive  nightmare  to  the  good  people  who 
rely  upon  rigid  sequence  in  courses  of  study,  such  programs 
are  fast  being  left  behind  ;  methods  do  indeed  move.  It  is 
only  one  short  generation  since  it  was  seriously  required  that 
children  should  spell  according  to  the  graded  course  of  study 
ordained  by  the  spelling  book.  And  some  remember  very 
clearly  the  wail  that  attended  the  passing  of  the  old  speller. 
The  teachers  of  those  days,  expressing  their  views  colloquially, 
would  doubtless  have  confessed  that  they  were  afraid,  once 
their  comfortable  prop  was  snatched  away,  that  they  would 
never  know  "where  they  were  at."  Yet,  in  spite  of  much 
protest,  only  good  has  probably  come  from  the  innovation  of 
teaching  not  at  the  pace  set  by  the  dictates  of  theorists  in  a 


NEW  LlFE  IN  OLD  SUBJECTS  177 

publishing  house  but  in  accordance  with  children's  daily 
needs ;  and  freedom  to  do  this,  whatever  the  subject,  stimu- 
lates the  teacher.  Certain  it  is  that  every  time  a  teacher  re- 
peats the  happy  experience  of  answering  real  questions,  of 
ministering  to  a  child's  actual  need,  she  becomes  less  tolerant 
of  stuffing  even  willing  children  with  information  to  be  used 
in  later  life. 

Not  long  ago  it  happened  that  some  visitors  were  listening 
to  an  examination  of  the  Little  Housekeepers  class.  Many 
questions  had  been  answered  with  surprising  accuracy  and 
promptness.  Finally,  a  question  was  passed  along  from  child 
to  child  accompanied  by  scowls  and  shakes  of  the  head  on 
the  part  of  the  little  girls.  The  question  was,  "  How  often 
should  windows  be  washed  ?  "  This  important  fact  had  of 
course  been  taught,  but  somehow  everybody  had  forgotten. 
In  this  moment  of  suspense  one  child  spoke  out,  to  the  sur- 
prise of  the  teacher  and  the  delight  of  the  visitors,  "  When 
they  need  it."  This  refreshing  answer  might  be  given  with 
equal  effect  by  many  a  grown  person  regarding  matters  of 
detail  in  a  course  of  study. 

/  Some,  at  least,  of  the  instruction  given  to  children  might 
properly  be  furnished  them  in  response  to  their  own  demand. 
Older  persons,  of  course,  are  in  a  measure  justified  in  antici- 
pating the  needs  of  the  future  for  their  children  ;  and  yet  no 
generation,  with  all  its  store  of  wisdom,  has  ever  sounded 
exactly  the  dominant  note  of  the  next.  Many  are  the  mis- 
takes in  education  which  are  never  told  in  words.  Indeed,  it 
is  only  when  some  distinguished  man  or  woman  discloses  the 
incidents  of  his  early  training  that  we  listen,  startled  by  the 
truth.  Pitifully  enough,  many  of  these  failures  have  happened 
in  the  discharge  of  what  is  piously  called  the  parents'  or  the 
teacher's  duty.  The  shortsightedness  of  teachers  is  a  by- 
word when  it  is  a  question  of  recognizing  in  a  pupil  the  taste 


1/8  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

for  scientific  work.  The  words  of  Darwin,  for  instance,  give 
every  true  teacher  a  pang :  "  The  school  as  a  means  of  edu- 
cation to  me  was  simply  a  blank."  Quite  a  different  type  of 
man  has  recently  summed  up  his  life  in  a  New  York  school 
thus :  "  In  fact,  my  life  at  the  North  Moore  Street  School 
was,  with  the  exception  of  the  playing  at  recesses,  when  I 
occasionally  indulged  in  a  fight  with  my  pet  enemy,  Harry 
Dupignac,  one  long  misery;  one  long  imprisonment."  l 

Just  so  far  as  the  school  estranges  itself  from  a  child's 
personal  experience,  just  so  far  are  both  his  life  and  his  school 
impoverished.  May  not  the  school  lessons  and  the  lessons  in 
the  school  of  life  unite  in  one  great  onward  current  ?  There 
are  some  prophets  who  say  that  in  the  future  these  will  in  all 
essential  respects  flow  on  together. 

Let  real  things,  then,  in  greatest  abundance  go  on  in  the 
garden.  Guide  young  people  ;  do  not  thwart  them  as,  in  the 
process  of  growing,  they  stretch  out  now  in  one  direction  and 
now  in  another.  And  in  the  meanwhile,  not  in  order  to  make 
gardens  but  to  help  nurture  joyous  souls,  let  the  course  of 
study  become  so  plastic  that  all  sorts  of  activities  may  be 
worked  into  the  beautiful  substance  which  is  life. 

1  St.  Gaudens. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

.   "  Tell  you  a  story,"  my  beautiful  dear, 

"  Of  nixies  and  pixies  and  fairies  with  wings  !  " 
Well,  curl  up  close  in  the  corner  here, 

And  I  '11  show  you  more  astonishing  things. 

CELIA  THAXTER 

Gardening  is  an  all-the-year-round  occupation,  yet  some 
of  us,  who  see  how  rushed  a  farmer  is  when  spring  comes  on, 
might  well  think  of  it  as  his  busy  season  and  ask  what  a 
farmer  does  the  rest  of  the  year  to  kill  time.  The  joyous 
call  of  all  growing  things  in  the  springtime  is  really  only  a 
part  of  the  story ;  spring  happens  to  be  the  climax  of  a 
year  of  strenuous  preparation,  and  during  those  months  his 
industry  is  just  as  real,  though  not  so  striking.  The  spring 
planting,  upon  which  so  many  hopes  hang,  is  actually  antici- 
pated weeks  —  yes,  months  —  before  a  single  seed  goes  into 
the  ground.  Several  important  pieces  of  work  must  have 
been  satisfactorily  done ;  any  one  of  these  by  itself  would 
keep  mind  and  muscle  steadily  employed.  Take  merely  the 
preparation  of  the  farm  land,  and  consider  what  skill  and  en- 
durance is  necessary  to  get  it  into  shape.  Consider  also  the 
planning  necessary  in  growing  plants  under  glass.  Prepara- 
tion cannot  be  made  a  week  too  early  nor  a  day  too  late  ;  the 
right  moment  waits  upon  the  weather.  To  tell  "when"  takes 
a  good  guesser.  Looking  ever  forward,  mapping  out  work, 
readjusting  his  plans  to  events  as  they  come  along,  becomes 
second  nature  to  the  expert.  There  is  no  month  in  the  cal- 
endar when  he  can  afford  not  to  "  watch  out."  One  market 

179 


180  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

gardener  said  that  his  business  was  to  grow  vegetables,  but 
that  he  himself  must  look  out  not  to  vegetate. 

To  prove  that  the  need  of  constant  activity  is  not  imaginary, 
we  have  here  sketched  out  the  work  of  a  twelvemonth.  The 
calendar  which  follows  is  compiled  from  items  that  appear  in 
the  records  of  young  gardeners,  some  of  whom  have  worked 
at  school  and  some  at  home.  It  shows  how  the  various  tasks 
are  likely  to  be  distributed  through  the  different  seasons. 

The  almanac  reads  as  follows  : 

SEPTEMBER  :  Keep  the  hoe  busy.  Avoid  digging  around  shrubs  and 
trees.  Rake  together  the  weeds.  Get  the  ground  ready  for  bulbs.  Har- 
vest the  main  crop  of  potatoes.  Collect  seeds  from  the  onion,  cabbage, 
beet,  turnip,  and  radish  plants  that  have  been  allowed  to  mature  for  this 
purpose.  Put  these  away  in  paper  bags  plainly  labeled.  Keep  them  cool 
and  dry.  Pile  more  soil  around  the  celery.  Look  out  for  slugs.  Com- 
plete a  collection  of  common  insects,  especially  to  show  their  life  histories 
for  mounting  and  study  in  the  winter.  Complete  also  a  collection  of 
common  weeds,  showing  the  plants  in  blossom  and  in  fruit  ready  for 
identifying  and  mounting. 

Sow  spinach  and  kale  for  next  spring's  crop.  Plant  seeds  of  trees  ;  it 
is  well  to  plant  some  nuts.  Set  out  hardy  perennials.  Plant  all  sorts 
of  hardy  flower  seeds :  columbine,  foxglove,  Canterbury  bells,  sweet 
William,  as  well  as  annual  poppy,  coreopsis,  and  mignonette.  Plant 
sweet  peas  now  or  a  little  later  in  preference  to  early  spring,  and  if  the 
weather  is  unusually  warm,  delay  a  little,  for  they  should  not  begin  to 
sprout  now.  There  will  be  many  more  weeks  of  warm  weather,  so  save 
the  tender  plants  from  the  first  frost.  Bring  out  old  mats  and  news- 
papers at  a  moment's  notice. 

OCTOBER  :  Rake  together  all  remaining  weeds  and  fallen  leaves  to 
start  a  new  compost  heap.  Bring  in  the  final  crop  of  pumpkins,  squashes, 
onions,  and  potatoes.  Leave  the  turnips  and  the  salsify.  Freezing  im- 
proves the  flavor  of  salsify.  Cover  the  chard  to  carry  it  through  the 
winter.  Trench  the  celery  before  the  frost.  After  the  ground  freezes, 
cover  the  strawberry  bed  with  loose  straw ;  this  gives  better  fruit  than 
a  mulch.  Plant  winter  rye  early  to  turn  in  for  humus.  Set  out  bulbs. 
Trim  the  shrubs.  Set  out  new  shrubs.  Prepare  cuttings.  Pot  the  house 
plants  for  the  winter.  Exchange  plants  with  the  neighbors.  Gather  the 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC       181 

ripened  cereals ;  save  some  of  the  kernels  in  jars  ready  for  the  study 
of  foodstuffs.  Label  all  the  seeds.  Exchange  with  friends  at  home  and 
at  a  distance.  Balance  the  books  for  the  season  just  closing. 

NOVEMBER  :  November  is  the  clearing-up  time.  Tidy  the  whole  gar- 
den. What  do  you  say  to  setting  out  a  dwarf  apple  tree  ?  This  is  a  good 
time.  Cover  the  bulbs  as  soon  as  the  ground  has  frozen  hard.  It  is  a 
good  rule  to  keep  the  ground  covered  with  something,  a  growing  crop 
is  desirable ;  then  it  retains  its  richness.  Spread  on  manure  and  fork  it 
in  lightly.  Leave  the  ground  rough,  so  that  the  air  may  get  in.  Trans- 
plant evergreen  ferns  from  the  woods  for  the  garden  and  for  the  house  : 
rock  ferns,  the  Christmas  fern,  Asplenium  ebeneum,  are  all  attractive. 
These  and  other  growing  plants  make  the  most  charming  Thanksgiving 
decorations  and  Christmas  gifts.  They  will  grow  in  low  Japanese  dishes 
or  deep  glass  saucers.  Arrange  them  as  nearly  as  possible  as  nature  does  ; 
do  not  try  to  add  to  their  beauty  with  ribbons  and  tissue  paper.  Par- 
tridge-berry vines  are  always  lovely.  Freesias,  Chinese  lilies,  and  other 
bulbs  may  be  coaxed  to  blossom  for  the  holidays. 

Look  over  the  tools,  sorting  out  those  that  should  go  to  the  shop. 
Polish  them  well  with  vaseline  or  boiled  linseed  oil  before  putting  them 
away.  A  gardener  is  known  by  the  tools  he  keeps. 

DECEMBER  :  This  is  the  month  to  get  your  collection  of  insects  and 
plants  mounted  and  arranged.  Supplement  by  books  and  reports  your 
own  personal  experiences  with  the  growth  and  behavior  of  plants.  You 
will  be  surprised  to  find  how  much  there  is  in  the  newspapers  and  the 
popular  magazines.  Plan  additions  and  improvements  to  be  carried  out 
in  your  own  garden.  Decide  upon  your  garden  specialty  for  the  new 
season ;  a  garden  never  repeats  itself.  Work  in  the  shop ;  make  labels 
and  trellises.  Do  all  sorts  of  tinkering  in  odd  moments.  Dibbles  can  be 
made,  for  instance,  out  of  broken  spade  handles.  Paint  the  signboards 
and  labels  which  you  think  will  be  needed  for  the  coming  season.  White 
letters  on  a  green  background  is  the  choice  in  one  garden.  It  is  effective 
and  not  too  staring. 

If  there  is  any  manure  to  spare,  make  a  present  of  a  wheelbarrowful 
to  your  favorite  shrub  or  vine.  It  can  be  spaded  in  whenever  the  ground 
permits.  Don't  burn  the  Christmas  greens ;  they  make  a  good  coverlid 
for  half-hardy  plants  outdoors.  Form  a  garden  club,  if  you  have  not  one 
already  in  your  neighborhood.  If  it  is  a  young  people's  club,  admit  a  few 
jolly  grown-up  people  as  honorary  members.  Get  as  many  entertaining 
books  as  you  can  on  the  subjects  that  interest  you ;  talk  these  over  at  the 


182  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

club  and  then  get  the  family  to  read  them  aloud  in  the  evenings.  If  you 
are  to  be  the  reader,  look  up  beforehand  the  meaning  and  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  hard  words ;  practice  a  bit  beforehand  and  you  can  give 
much  pleasure.  A  few  pictures,  a  specimen  or  two,  or  an  experiment  of 
your  own  shown  along  with  the  reading  will  make  it  as  interesting  as 
an  illustrated  lecture. 

JANUARY  :  Bring  from  the  cellar  the  bulbs  for  the  house.  Begin  to  test 
seeds  for  the  spring  planting.  Visit  the  big  seed  houses  in  order  to  keep 
apace  with  their  appliances.  If  your  home  is  too  far  away,  so  that  not 
all  in  a  club  can  go,  then  subscribe  enough  money  to  send  one  or  two 
members  who  will  give  a  first-rate  account  to  the  rest.  Start  some  plants 
in  boxes  just  for  the  sake  of  experiment.  Renew  subscription  to  a  good 
garden  magazine  for  your  own  reading  and  for  exchange.  Country  Life 
and  The  Garden  Magazine  are  two  of  the  best.  Sort  newspaper  clip- 
pings that  are  worth  saving,  for  your  scrapbook.  Write  for  the  new  cata- 
logues and  the  new  Agricultural  Department  bulletins.  Put  in  your 
order  before  the  rush. 

FEBRUARY  :  Visit  forcing  houses  and  greenhouses.  Visit  the  big  mar- 
ket to  see  how  the  bounty  of  many  latitudes  is  heaped  at  our  very  doors. 
Sow  the  first  lettuce,  cabbage,  tomato,  and  peppers  indoors  to  transplant 
in  due  time.  Tin  cans  and  cigar  boxes  will  be  in  great  demand. 

MARCH  :  Plant  indoors  a  second  series  of  vegetables :  cabbage,  egg- 
plant, and  parsley;  sow  also  lettuce,  radish,  and  tomato  seed  in  the 
hotbed.  Raise  some  hardy  flower  seedlings  to  set  out.  Asters  and  nas- 
turtiums will  be  good.  Uncover  the  perennials  and  the  bulbs.  Work 
the  dressing  well  into  the  ground  ready  for  outdoor  planting.  Wait  a  bit 
if  the  ground  is  still  wet. 

APRIL:  A  long  list  of  vegetables  may  be  sown  in  the  cold  frame. 
Many  can  also  be  planted  outdoors :  potatoes,  onion  sets,  early  peas,  as 
well  as  radish,  lettuce,  parsnips,  beet,  carrots,  salsify,  spinach,  and  chard. 
Put  in  some  corn,  if  you  are  willing  to  take  risks,  and  then  you  may 
be  able  to  crow  over  your  less  optimistic  neighbors.  Gather  the  glass- 
grown  lettuce  and  radishes.  Uncover  the  rhubarb  and  feed  it  up  well. 
It  will  surprise  you  by  growing  famously  within  a  headless  barrel  set 
down  over  it.  Keep  a  watchful  eye  for  the  eggs  and  larvae  of  insects. 
Allow  some  to  develop  in  the  house,  but  guard  against  their  escape. 
Tend  the  wild  garden.  Plant  seeds  of  the  trees  that  are  fruiting.  Plant 
acorns,  horse  chestnut,  peach,  and  apple  seeds.  Unite  in  some  neighbor- 
hood project  for  Arbor  Day  celebration. 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC       183 

MAY  :  Here  is  an  old  rule :  "  Plant  first  corn  when  the  shadbush  is 
in  full  bloom,  or  when  the  leaves  of  the  white  oak  are  as  large  as  a 
mouse's  ear."  Plant  and  transplant  for  all  you  are  worth,  watching 
always  for  vacant  spots  that  will  accommodate  extra  seedlings.  Trans- 
plant from  the  frames:  beans  —  plenty  of  them — beets,  corn,  and 
cucumbers.  Melon  and  gourds  may  now  be  started.  Thin  out  bravely. 
Get  the  strawberry  bed  in  shape.  Spare  some  attention  for  the  flower 
beds.  Plant  such  seeds  as  cosmos,  mignonette,  phlox,  zinnia.  Don't 
forget  to  watch  the  beehives  closely  just  now;  the  bees  may  swarm 
at  any  time. 

JUNE  :  June  provides  work  enough  of  all  kinds  to  keep  things  hum- 
ming. Lettuce,  onions,  early  peas,  spinach,  kale,  and  rhubarb  are  ready 
to  gather.  Fill  the  spaces  with  a  second  sowing.  Continue  faithfully 
thinning,  transplanting,  and  cultivating.  Arrange  a  spring  exhibit  of  the 
products  of  the  garden,  and  display  at  the  same  time  the  results  of  any 
experiments  that  have  been  tried.  This  may  be  made  a  real  event  in 
your  neighborhood.  Weed  early  and  late. 

JULY  :  This  is  the  month  for  planting  some  late  vegetables  ;  cabbage 
and  corn  are  most  popular.  Sow  lettuce  in  the  vacant  places.  Prepare 
the  ground  for  winter  turnips.  Sow  more  turnips  and  carrots  if  you  are 
fond  of  them  ;  also  a  fresh  supply  of  beans  and  beets.  The  end  of  July 
is  generally  the  driest  time  in  the  whole  summer. 

AUGUST  :  In  August  keep  ahead  of  the  weeds.  Plant  late  spinach. 
Sow  lettuce  once  more.  Thin  the  turnips  and  parsley.  Take  out  the 
early  potatoes.  Put  aside  the  medium-sized  potatoes  for  "  seed."  Dry 
them  in  piles  in  the  sun.  Plant  in  their  place  winter  spinach.  Prepare 
for  the  autumn  exhibit  of  fruits  and  flowers.  Label  a  few  of  the  hand- 
somest flowers  to  save  for  seed.  Keep  the  rest  of  the  flowers  well 
picked.  Write  the  records  of  the  year.  Show  profit  and  loss. 

The  march  of  the  seasons  brings  to  the  school  gardener  a 
problem  which  the  market  gardener  does  not  have  to  confront. 
This  is  the  break,  the  chasm  it  may  rightly  be  called,  made 
by  the  long  summer  holidays.  For  the  welfare  of  school 
gardens  these  holidays  come  at  just  the  wrong  time.  How  to 
bridge  this  period  is  a  puzzle  indeed.  Some  teachers  admit 
that  they  are  quite  helpless  in  the  solution  of  the  matter,  and 
merely  compromise  as  best  they  may  by  planting  only  those 


1 84 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


vegetables  that  will  ripen  before  the  end  of  June,  frankly 
giving  up  the  crops  that  need  attention  during  July  and 
August.  The  writer  of  a  recent  popular  book  on  nature 
study  would  have  us  accept  the  notion  that  a  school  garden 
can,  without  much  attention,  "  worry  through  the  summer,"  as 
he  calls  it.  "  In  fact,"  he  continues,  "  a  neglected  garden  may 
be  made  to  furnish  some  excellent  lessons  in  the  study  of 


«  WHO  'S   WHO   IN  THE   GARDEN  " 

weeds,  overcrowding,  insect  effects,  etc."  To  be  sure,  he  does 
not  advocate  this  as  an  ideal  way  of  conducting  a  school  gar- 
den. And  yet  it  is  not  reasonable  that  any  believer  in  real 
gardening  should  with  so  little  concern  drop  midsummer 
out  of  the  calendar. 

We  should  realize  that  a  garden  effects  for  good  or  ill  a 
great  deal  more  than  the  few  individuals  who  run  it.  Having 
make-believe  or  half-cared-for  gardens  in  its  midst  may  spoil 
a  neighborhood ;  even  a  few  weeks  of  neglect  will  turn  a 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC       185 

spot  of  splendid  promise  into  a  breeding  place  for  pests 
and  a  tangle  of  weeds  and  old  papers.  It  is  an  ugly  sight ; 
surely  no  school  can  afford  to  countenance  such  a  perversion 
of  a  good  thing. 

A  study  of  the  summer  problem,  however,  shows  that  while 
young  people  are  somewhat  scattered  during  the  holidays,  it 
is  rather  the  exception  when  a  family  of  children  go  away  for 
the  whole  vacation.  Some  are  off  for  a  fortnight  and  some 
for  not  so  long.  Suppose  the  children  to  be  urged  on  by  a 
purpose  all  their  own,  with  a  clear  picture  of  what  they  wish 
to  attain,  and  suppose  they  have  the  good  luck  to  be  near  a 
good  gardener,  then  there  is  a  pretty  good  chance  that  the 
garden  will  hold  its  own. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  that  the  garden  has  sprung 
up  at  the  wave  of  a  teacher's  magic  wand,  and  that  the 
children  have,  for  the  time  being,  caught  by  contagion  a  little 
of  his  enthusiasm  ;  in  such  a  case,  what  wonder  that  when 
the  personality  of  the  leader  fades,  the  garden  goes  to  the 
weeds.  A  garden  carried  on  for  the  teacher's  sake  will  be  in 
no  sense  "  a  hardy  garden  "  ;  this  is  because  it  has  failed 
to  touch  the  children's  real  desires.  It  is  possible,  however, 
for  a  teacher  to  help  children  organize  so  that  they  can  go  a 
certain  length  of  time  by  themselves.  One  teacher,  her  first 
year,  succeeded  so  well  that  the  girls,  during  her  absence  of 
ten  weeks,  conducted  the  work  themselves,  it  being  under- 
stood that  each  one  who  went  away  for  a  visit  should  furnish 
a  capable  alternate. 

In  some  towns  garden  work  begun  at  the  school,  as  a  part 
of  the  regular  school  program,  is  continued  during  the  holidays 
under  the  direction  of  a  social  settlement  or  a  garden  com- 
mittee. Even  when  the  summer  work  is  carried  on  under 
the  most  favorable  auspices,  a  change  in  management  is  a 
drawback.  The  change,  too,  is  bound  to  occur  when  the 


1 86  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

work  most  demands  a  steady  hand.  Some  children  are  sure 
to  be  upset  by  the  irregularity,  and  drop  out.  Better,  so  far 
as  continuous  gardening  is  concerned,  will  be  found  the  plan 
adopted  in  the  city  of  Cleveland,  and  also  at  the  Children's 
School  Farm  in  New  York,  where  a  garden  teacher  and  cura- 
tor, with  assistants,  oversee  the  work  the  year  round.  The  time 
is  sure  to  come  when  in  a  corps  of  teachers  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  certain  ones  are  to  take  their  long  vacation  in  the 
summer  and  others  in  the  winter.  Each  section  of  the  city 
or  countryside  should  have  within  access  a  demonstration 
garden,  with  a  consulting  gardener  at  the  head  who  would 
understand  the  difficulties  prevailing  in  the  neighborhood, 
where  questions  about  home  gardens  might  be  answered  and 
puzzles  solved,  where  seeds  and  plantlets  might  be  sold 
for  a  trifle,  and  where  the  surplus  vegetables  might  be  regu- 
larly bought.  Great  things  can  be  accomplished  in  a  neigh- 
borhood where  such  a  model  garden  is  identified  with  the 
interests  of  home  and  school,  each  playing  into  the  hands 
of  its  partner. 

The  records  of  school-garden  events  may  be  made  in 
various  ways.  Sometimes  the  important  notes  are  kept  by  a 
secretary  elected  by  the  class. 

The  diary  that  follows  happens  to  be  written  by  a  member 
of  a  garden  class  in  a  somewhat  closely  settled  suburb  of 
Boston.  It  is  one  child's  account  of  the  incidents  that  inter- 
ested him  in  the  school  garden  during  its  opening  year. 
Far  more  ambitious  plans  were  worked  out  later,  this  school 
being  one  where  the  children  formed  voluntary  partnerships, 
thus  heightening  the  pleasure  of  labor  and  opening  the  way 
for  interesting  and  ingenious  enterprises.  The  school  gar- 
den passed  into  competent  hands  during  the  summer,  but, 
as  in  so  many  cases,  its  connection  with  the  school  ceased  in 
June,  causing  the  sort  of  break  that  we  have  already  been 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC       187 

regretting.  The  story  stops  then,  too.  It  is  a  pity,  for  we 
should  like  to  know  more  about  the  Allston  garden,  its  genial 
neighbors,  and  the  writer,  aged  nine. 


SCIENCE   DIARY1 

'September  28,  1904.  I  went  out  in  our  garden  and  observed  cater- 
pillars, mosquitoes,  slugs,  and  other  insects.  When  I  was  through,  I 
brushed  some  plants  and  a  lot  of  mosquitoes  flew  out. 

October  28,  1904.  To-day  we  had  some  men  come  and  make  our  gar- 
den larger.  They  used  the  adz  and  the  spade.  They  cleaned  our  rubbish 
pile  away. 

October  28,  1904.  To-day  I  was  getting  leaves  in  Mr.  Bird's  yard. 
The  other  boys  were  in  the  garden  gathering  stones  and  raking  leaves. 

November  j,  1904.  Dr.  Field,  a  professor  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  came  to  prune  our  trees.  He  said,  "  there  are 
three  reasons  for  pruning  (i)  to  make  it  bear  more  fruit  (2)  to  make  it 
bear  larger  and  better  fruit  (3)  to  make  the  tree  look  better."  He 
then  showed  us  his  saw.  It  had  a  blade  on  one  edge  to  cut  large  limbs 
and  a  blade  on  the  other  edge  for  cutting  small  limbs. 

One  of  our  boys  climbed  up  the  tree  to  cut  off  high  limbs,  when 
Dr.  Field  was  here. 

December  10,  1904.  I  was  out  in  our  garden  planting  grains.  We 
put  them  in  the  corner  by  Mr.  Bird's  house.  The  grains  were  winter 
wheat,  rye,  and  oats.  We  also  planted  some  vetch. 

December  20,  1904.  About  this  time  we  had  some  men  come  to  cover 
our  garden  with  stable  manure. 

March  10,  1905.  Mr.  Crawford  gave  us  some  garden  boxes.  They 
had  no  drainage.  We  had  to  make  an  artificial  drainage  because  the 
ground  would  look  very  muddy.  It  was  made  by  first  putting  into  the 
boxes  some  large  stones,  then  small  stones,  then  crock,  then  sand 
and  soil. 

We  planted  some  seeds  in  our  garden  boxes.  They  were  lettuce,  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  tomato  and  pepper.  The  lettuce  seed  is  long  and 
narrow,  but  is  very  small.  The  cabbage  seed  is  round  and  brown. 
Some  boys  of  our  class  with  me,  were  digging  sand  for  our  garden  boxes. 

1  No  corrections  have  been  made  in  this  exercise. 


;, 


188  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

We  were  digging  in  the  corner  by  the  school  wall.  After  we  were  dig- 
ging some  water  came  through  the  fence.  The  boys  piled  leaves  on  it 
and  tried  to  stop  it. 

f  March  16,  1905,  To-day  we  began  digging  a  hole  for  a  cold  frame. 
The  hole  should  be  about  ten  feet  long  and  about  three  feet  in  width. 

March  77,  1905.  We  have  tried  to  fit  the  frame  to 
he  hole.  The  hole  was  too  small'  for  the  frame  so  we 
had  to  borrow  the  pickax  from  the  City  Fire  Engine  House 
again  and  make  it  larger. 

We  have  noticed  that  the  lettuce  has  come  up.    It  has 
long  leaves  like  this.    It  is  all  green. 

March  21,  1905.  To-day  we  had  a  large  snowstorm  that  put  us  back 
in  working  on  the  cold  frame.  It  filled  the  frame  way  up. 

March  22,  1905.  We  had  a  visitor  to-day.  It  was  an  alligator.  It 
was  sent  from  Florida  to  a  girl  in  our  room.  It  was  about  one  foot  long. 
It  had  a  hard  back.  We  jerked  the  box  it  was  in  and  it  snapped  at  us. 

March  23,  1905.  A  boy  in  our  room  went  over  to  Mi.  Bird's  house 
and  asked  him  for  some  manure  for  our  cold  frame.  He  said  "  Yes, 
would  you  like  the  dark  or  light  manure  ? "  We  said,  "  We  would 
rather  have  the  dark."  We  brought  over  four  or  five  loads  in  the  wheel- 
barrow. The  last  load  was  light  manure. 

March  24.,  1905.  This  morning  some  men  from  the  schoolhouse 
commission  were  sent  to  cut  off  the  browntail  moths.  We  had  some 
brought  in  to  be  put  in  a  bottle  for  us  to  observe  them.  We  have  a  piece 
of  cheesecloth  over  the  jar. 

March  27,  1905.  The  tomato  plants  and  the  pepper  have  come  up. 
All  of  the  plants  are  up.  There  is  only  one  specimen  of  pepper  up. 

March  28,  1905.  The  baby  caterpillars  are  out  and  are  crawling 
around  the  jar.  The  moth  has  not  yet  come  out. 

March  29,  1905.  Some  boys  went  over  to  Wheeler  &  Brown  to  get 
some  loam.  They  are  florists.  We  bought  one  dollar's  worth,  which 
was  two  barrels.  It  was  brought  in  a  team.  One  barrel  was  put  in  the 
cold  frame  and  the  other  under  the  fourth  window.  Mr.  Brown  came 
in  to  see  the  plants  in  our  garden  boxes. 

March  29,  1905.  This  noon  two  boys  went  to  the  pottery  to  get 
some  flowerpots.  The  man  in  the  office  showed  them  some  pots  but 
they  were  too  large.  We  then  got  smaller  ones  for  ten  cents  a  dozen. 
The  pots  are  three  inches  in  depth  and  two  inches  and  one  half  in  diam- 
eter at  the  top.  We  bought  five  dozen.  The  men  gave  us  eleven  extra. 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 


89 


March  29,  1905.  To-night  some  children  stayed  after  school  to  trans- 
plant the  tomato.  The  pots  were  filled  with  loam.  There  was  only  one 
tomato  in  each  pot  because  the  pots  are  small  and  the  plants  will  grow 
large.  We  had  seventy-one  pots  in  all  and  fifty-four  tomatoes.  We 
have  seventeen  empty  pots. 

March  j>/,  ^poj.  To-day  we  finished  our  cold  frame.  In  the  morn- 
ing some  of  the  boys  planted  seeds  in  it.  The  seeds  were  lettuce  and 

radish.  The  lettuce  i  n 

< L. ..to. — -1-1- -> 

seed  is  long,  narrow 

and     black.     The 


radish  is  round  and  .. 

c» 

of  a  reddish  brown 
color.  The  seeds 
were  planted  in 
furrows  about  a 


nee 


Scale  /'.£" 


South 


quarter  of  an  inch  deep.  The  furrows  were  three  inches  apart.  This 
picture  is  a  plan  of  the  cold  frame  showing  how  the  furrows  were  made. 

The  boys  planted  radish  in  the  cold  frame  nearest  to  the  corner  of 
the  portable.  The  lettuce  seed  was  planted  further  along  in  the  cold 
frame  toward  the  wall. 

In  the  afternoon  the  janitor  put  on  the  glass  windows  for  us.  The 
boys  watered  the  seeds,  after  they  had  been  covered  over  with  the  soil 
and  we  left  them  to  grow  up  during  our  two  weeks'  vacation. 

This  afternoon  Miss  Withington  came  out.  We  read  some  of  our 
diaries  to  her  and  she  liked  them  very  much.  We  showed  her  our  cata- 
logues. At  three  o'clock  we  went  out  in  our  garden  and  scratched  off 
the  old  manure  off  of  the  crocuses  and  tulips. 

To-day  we  also  raked  a  part  of  the  large  garden.  It  was  the  part  near 
the  corner  between  the  school  and  the  portable. 

April  10,  1905.  When  we  came  back  in  vacation  we  noticed  the 
crocuses  had  come  up.  They  have  a  bright  yellow  color.  The  tulips 
have  come  up  but  have  no  flowers.  They  have  come  up  about  two 
inches  in  height. 

The  plants  in  our  cold  frame  are  up.  They  are  radish  and  lettuce. 
We  have  two  boys  that  tend  to  the  cold  frame  and  open  it  in  the  morn- 
ing and  close  it  at  night.  I  am  the  one  to  see  that  the  cold  frame  is  well 
watered. 

The  pepper  has  come  up  indoors.  The  grains  out  in  the  garden  have 
come  up.  They  are  wheat,  rye,  and  oats.  We  planted  them  last  fall. 


190  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

April  25,  1905.  Last  night  we  soaked  some  peas  in  water.  I  noticed 
that  they  have  swollen  and  smoothened  out.  I  have  also  noticed  that 
the  radish  in  the  cold  &^  frame  has  turned  red  at  the  bottom. 

May  /,  1905.  The  <^^^^^  radishes  have  turned  broad  at  the  root. 
They  are  this  shape.  €sjF*  The  plants  were  very  crowded  so  we 
had  to  thin  them  out.  Sjr  Some  we  put  next  to  the  peas  and  the 
others  we  thinned  out  )  in  the  cold  frame. 

May  2,  1905.  To-day  we  transplanted  the  rest  of  the  tomatoes  into 
the  small  pots.  There  were  sixteen  plants  transplanted. 

This  is  a  picture  as  it  is  to-day :  ^SSlfe'  The  l°n£  leaves  are 
the  first  leaves  and  the  others  are  ^51  ^)  the  ones  that  have 
grown  since  the  first  had  spread.  ^  '  There  are  two  first 

leaves  and  quite  a  few  others.  The  r~  *>  last  leaves  are  jagged 

and  the  first  are  smooth  around  the  edge. 

May  j,  1905.  Miss  Withington  came  out  to  see  our  garden.  It  was 
at  recess  and  we  went  out  in  the  garden.  We  planted  beets  in  with 
the  radishes  because  the  radish  will  be  out  and  the  beet  takes  till  fall 
to  be  ripe.  We  then  left  a  path  for  us  to  get  at  the  radishes  and 
beets.  We  then  planted  onions  in  two  rows.  The  onion  seed  is  round 
and  black.  It  is  small  and  has  a  rough  surface.  The  beet  seed  is  very 
rough.  It  is  a  brownish  gray  and  is  about  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

We  have  received  a  new  hose  from  the  janitor.  It  was  put  on  this 
noon. 

May  4,  1905.  This  morning  we  went  out  in  class  sections  to  trans- 
plant our  cabbage  next  bed  to  the  onions.  The  cabbage  is  six  to  eight 
inches  high ;  we  planted  them  to  the  description  of  Miss  Withington. 
They  were  set  about  twenty  inches  apart.  We  then  transplanted  lettuce 
in  among  the  cabbage  by  the  Italian  method. 

May  4,  1905-  This  morning  I  was  out  in  the  garden.  We  each  had 
a  garden  two  feet  wide  and  half  the  length  of  the  large  garden.  We 
had  partners  which  had  a  garden  two  feet  wide  on  the  other  half. 

We  planted  beans,  parsnip,  turnip  and  cucumber.  We  have  two  sec- 
tions, the  first  section  have  the  odd  numbers  of  the  garden  and  the 
second  the  even  numbers.  I  had  turnip,  cucumber  and  beans.  It  was 
so  windy  we  could  not  do  the  planting  so  Miss  Homer  planted  them  and 
we  made  the  furrows  and  covered  the  seeds.  The  cucumber  seed  is  like 

this :  ^~~^.  The  beans  look  like  this  '•  C^^^  The  turniP is  like  tm's :  Q 
I  did  not  see  the  parsnip  and  v^  -_  --^  cannot  describe  it. 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC       191 

May  8,  1905.    To-day  we  noticed  the  peas  had  come  up  and  they  had 
to  have  the  earth  scratched  around  them  be- 
cause there  were  lumps  of  earth  and  they  could 
not  push  through.   They  looked  like  this  when 
we  took  off  a  lump  of  soil. 

The  tulips  have  come  up  and  they  were  planted  near  Mr.  Bird's 
fence  toward  Cambridge  Street.  They  are  white,  yellow,  red,  and  striped. 
They  look  like  this : 

May  23, 1905.  To-day  we  planted 
lettuce,  radish  and  beets.  We  planted 
them  next  to  the  transplanted  let- 
tuce which  is  in  the  second  section's 
side  near  the  trees  toward  Mr.  Bird's 
fence. 

May  24, 1905.  To-day  we  scratched  the  earth  around  the  small  plants 
in  our  own  garden. 

We  also  planted  peas  next  to  the  grass  by  Mr.  Bird's  fence  near  the 
grains. 

May  25,  1905.  To-day  we  were  cleaning  up  the  garden.  I  was  in 
the  crocus  bed  scratching  the  soil,  the  ground  was  very  hard  and  was 
hard  to  soften.  After  I  had  softened  the  ground  I  cut  off  the  leaves 
near  to  the  ground. 

May  26,  1905.  This  morning  we  boys  were  planting  spinach  in  the 
shade.  We  made  three  furrows  in  the  second  section's  ground.  We 
planted  squash  and  corn  in  the  sunshine.  The  squash  and  corn  needs 
the  sun  and  the  spinach  needs  shade.  We  then  sat  down  and  read 
"Alice  in  Wonderland"  under  the  trees. 

May  29,  1905.  I  noticed  to-day  our  beans  were  very  large,  and  our 
peas,  radishes  and  lettuce  in  the  second  section  are  up.  The  peas  look 
like  this. 

June  5,  1905.  I  went  out  this  morning  to  look  at  the  garden.  The 
spinach,  corn,  squash  and  the  peas  are  up.  The  peas  were  up  before, 
but  the  leaves  have  come  out.  The  beans  are  up  about  three  inches. 

The  soil  has  been  very  dry  for  a  long  time  except  on  Friday  when 
there  was  a  little  shower  for  a  few  minutes. 

June  6,  1905.    My  garden,  No.  1 8,  Second  Section,  has  planted  in  it : 
peas  squash  lettuce  radish 

turnip  onion  cauliflower  cucumber 

beans  parsnip  cabbage 


192  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

Mr.  Bird's   fence 

stock 


phl 


ox 


stock 


Edge     of    garden 


PLAN   OF   THE   FLOWER    GARDEN    NEAREST   THE   STREET 
Planted  June  9 


PLAN    OF   THE   TWO    CIRCULAR    FLOWER   GARDENS 
Planted  June  9 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER'S  ALMANAC       193 

June  14,  1905.  To-day  I  was  out  in  my  garden.  My  peas  are  6 
inches,  squash  4  inches,  radish  2  inches,  cabbage  7  inches,  lettuce  2 
inches  high  and  61  inches  long,  cauliflower  10  inches,  beans  7  inches, 
turnips  ^  inch,  and  onions  2^  inches. 

I  have  been  out  and  measuring  my  plants. 

.TYLER  S.  ROGERS 

Age,  9  years  i  o  months 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE 

We  are  beginning  a  new  agriculture,  not  continuing  an  old  one. 

LIBERTY  H.  BAILEY 

The  best  thing  school  gardening  does  for  children  is  to 
help  prepare  them  for  their  larger  life  in  the  world  ;  and 
gardening  will  have  accomplished  this  if  only  they  have  mas- 
tered one  single  lesson  :  how  to  attack  a  simple  problem  in 
scientific  fashion  and  work  it  out  cooperatively.  To  thus 
work  out  such  a  problem  demands  far  more  skill  than  would 
at  first  appear.  It  means, 'above  all,  that  children  will  have 
been  strictly  schooled  in  leadership  and  in  loyalty  to  leaders. 
The  power  so  gained  can  be  applied  in  after  life  a  dozen 
times  a  day. 

Next  in  importance  comes  enthusiasm  for  the  soil  itself. 
This,  once  aroused  in  the  hearts  of  children,  will  continually 
bubble  up.  Children  love  their  school  garden,  and  they  work 
in  it  like  bees;  but  the  real  test  of  a  good  school  garden  is 
the  good  home  garden.  Its  season's  work  can  never  be  more 
genuinely  measured  than  by  the  dozens  —  possibly  the  hun- 
dreds —  of  little  home  gardens  that  spring  up  within  a  short 
radius  of  the  parent  plot.  These  may  be  the  means  of 
waking  up  a  whole  neighborhood,  for  they  will  show  con- 
clusively how  the  use  of  odd  moments  —  one  short  half-hour 
a  day  —  will  afford  armfuls  of  fresh  vegetables  for  the  family 
table,  and  often  a  supply  besides  for  neighborhood  sale. 

But  a  teacher  does  not  content  himself  with  accompany- 
ing children  to  the  boundaries  of  the  wide  world  and  there 

194 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  195 

bidding  them  good-by.  No,  he  follows  the  different  trails  as 
far  as  eye  can  reach ;  and  when  these  blur  and  disappear 
in  the  distance,  he  knows  well  enough  that  some  day  the 
youngsters  will  be  returning  to  tell  him  their  adventures. 
A  master  not  only  welcomes  these  youthful  explorers ;  he 
actually  depends  upon  them  to  bring  home  to  him  bits  of 
new  knowledge.  Proud  of  their  confidence,  and  yet  humble 
enough  to  learn  from  them,  he  then  enriches  his  own  per- 
sonal experience  by  the  results  of  their  quests.  In  this  way 
a  teacher  leads  not  one  but  a  hundred  lives.  He  needs  to ; 
for  whatever  he  may  be  titled  in  the  catalogue  or  dubbed  on 
the  ball  field,  his  real  business  is  getting  his  pupils  ready  for 
the  work  of  life. 

Thus  the  fruits  of  a  garden  director's  efforts  will  not  have 
properly  matured  unless  he  keeps  in  view  the  possibility  of  a 
country  life  for  at  least  some  of  his  children.  Even  for  those 
growing  up  in  a  city's  midst,  provided  they  are  caught  young 
enough,  tillage  of  the  land  is  seriously  to  be  recommended. 
The  fact  that  one  of  the  first  boys  of  the  Rice  School  garden, 
one  who  had  never  lived  out  of  the  so-called  slums,  is  now  a 
graduate  of  the  Bussey  Institute,  and  a  full-fledged  gardener, 
makes  us  believe  that  such  a  record  as  his  may  inspire  other 
city  boys  to  similar  ambitions. 

But  what  sort  of  world  is  this  which  a  bright  lad  with  a 
yearning  for  outdoors  proposes  to  enter  ?  What  does  the 
farming  life  require  of  him,  and  what  does  it  give  him  in. 
return  ?  It  is  a  teacher's  business  to  find  this  out,  beyond  the 
possibility  of  a  mistake,  before  he  is  ready  to  advise  young 
candidates. 

It  must  be  owned  that  the  agricultural  situation  in  these 
last  years  has  puzzled  the  wisest.  Agriculture  is  at  present 
passing  through  a  wonderful  period  of  reconstruction.  So  seri- 
ous are  the  changes  now  being  wrought,  that  a  distinguished 


196  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

member  of  the  British  Association  has  recently  said:  "As 
the  nineteenth  century  had  its  industrial  revolution,  so  will 
the  twentieth  century  have  its  agricultural  revolution." 

So  swiftly,  too,  are  these  changes  rushing  upon  us  that,  in 
the  words  of  the  Looking-glass  Queen  :  "  It  takes  all  the 
running  you  can  do,  to  keep  in  the  same  place.  If  you  want 
to  get  somewhere  else,  you  must  run  at  least  twice  as  fast 
as  that." 

It  certainly  takes  a  high  rate  of  speed,  in  these  days,  to 
keep  pace  with  agriculture.  It  is  hard  enough  for  the  indi- 
vidual to  adjust  himself  to  the  new  ideals  and  conditions,  but 
still  harder  for  a  whole  community.  Two  contradictory  ele- 
ments belong  in  every  locality  ;  it  is  always  so.  Discuss  farm 
pleasures  and  profits  with  a  philanthropist  or  a  social  worker 
and  the  response  is  quick  and  enthusiastic ;  he  sees  a  vision, 
even  though  he  does  not  know  exactly  how  to  realize  it. 
Try,  however,  to  talk  with  some  grizzled  farmer  as  you  jog 
along  with  him  behind  old  Nell,  and  ten  to  one  he  will  omi- 
nously shake  his  head.  He  has  never  dreamed ;  he  is  too 
f<  practical."  To  your  disappointment  the  topic  is  closed  al- 
most before  it  is  begun.  These  instances  show  how  the  past 
and  the  future  overlap  in  the  present.  The  prophecy  of  suc- 
cess confronts  the  story  of  defeat.  It  is  the  educator  who 
must  look  squarely  at  both. 

In  agriculture,  as  in  everything  else,  the  big  things  attract 
attention  first.  Merely  to  hear  about  them  makes  the  pulse 
beat  quicker.  Some  of  these  achievements  impress  us  as  we 
whiz  past  them  on  the  long-distance  train  ;  some  of  them 
we  may  be  lucky  enough  to  visit ;  plenty  of  them  we  can  read 
about.  Among  the  number  are  the  ten-thousand-acre  wheat 
fields,  with  the  thirty-two-horse-power  reaper,  the  great  rainless 
farms,  the  wonderful  stretches  of  built-up  soil.  They  include 
the  acres  of  glass  frames  that,  like  ponds  in  the  distance, 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  197 

flash  back  the  sunshine,  and  the  houses  where  plants  are 
being  grown  by  electricity.  Besides,  there  are  whole  fields 
devoted  to  some  of  the  latest  fashions,  so  to  speak,  in  crops : 
alfalfa,  cowpea,  crimson  clover,  and  macaroni  wheat. 

The  perfection  to  which  each  tract  has  finally  been  brought 
leaves  no  doubt  that  the  plan  has  been  worked  out  by  a  highly 
trained  person.  Indeed,  if  we  are  struck  by  any  one  thing 
everywhere,  it  is  that  success  follows  in  the  wake  of  applied 
science. 

What  does  all  this  cost  ?  The  quotations  regarding  the 
expense  of  equipping  a  great  modern  farm  are  certainly  im- 
pressed upon  us.  Therefore  the  business  ability  and  skill 
needed  in  conducting  it  must  be  that  of  the  expert.  A 
manager's  equipment,  then,  must  include  both  scientific 
training  and  a  knowledge  of  men  and  money.  It. may  be 
new  to  some  that  a  successful  farmer  must  be  a  successful 
business  man. 

While  still  under  the  spell  of  these  magnificent  ventures, 
another  question  arises  :  What  relation  do  these  great  farms 
bear  to  the  development  of  our  country  as  a  democracy  ?  The 
answer  is  that  the  larger  the  farm,  the  greater  is  likely  to  be 
the  amount  of  hired  labor.  Hired  labor  means  workers  that 
are  controlled  by  authority  but  are  largely  exempt  from  re- 
sponsibility. Such  a  class  is  a  weed  in  the  garden  of  democ- 
racy;  it  must  be  rooted  out.  Society,  because  it  gains  by 
small  and  loses  by  great  ownerships,  is  ready  to  help  cut  up 
large  estates  into  little  farms. 

Some  gardeners  have  been  quick  to  see  their  chance.  A 
man  of  science  knows  that  he  can,  in  many  respects,  score 
on  a  little  farm  as  well  as  on  a  large  one.  In  obedience  to  this 
theory  such  experts  are  multiplying  fast,  and  they  are  reap- 
ing their  reward.  From  mushrooms  to  medicinal  herbs,  tip- 
top produce  never  goes  a-begging.  A  market  gardener  in  the 


I98 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


neighborhood  of  New  York  tells  us  that  he  can  actually  get 
whatever  price  he  asks  for  his  strawberries  and  early  peas. 
One  thing  more  must  be  taken  into  account.  To-day  a 
producer  is  decidedly  looked  up  to  in  the  community;  sel- 
dom in  history  has  there  been  a  time  when  the  progressive 

gardener  has  been  re- 
spected as  he  is  to-day, 
and  never  has  his  hand 
been  so  warmly  grasped 
by  scientists  and  busi- 
ness men.  Still  more 
encouraging,  this  in- 
dustrial comradeship 
is  not  prompted  by 
patronage  or  philan- 
thropy ;  it  merely  ac- 
knowledges the  intrin- 
sic worth  of  those  who 
are  working  the  soil 
with  brains  as  well  as 
with  brawn.  The  sum 
total  of  experience 
shows  that  it  is  the 
trained  man,  whether 
working  on  a  gigantic 

scale  or  on  a  small  one,  who,  other  things  being  equal  from 
the  economic  standpoint,  wins  out. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  this  general  truth,  a  would-be  expert  does 
sometimes  fail,  no  matter  how  quick-witted  or  how  scientific 
he  may  be,  because  final  success  depends  upon  a  market. 
Even  the  optimist,  who  from  his  lookout  loves  to  call  "  All 's 
well ! "  and  who  predicts,  for  small  lands  intensively  cultivated, 
triumphs  that  are  little  short  of  miracles,  is  shrewd  enough 


WHEN   THE    EARTH    IS    TREATED 
KINDLY 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  199 

to  see  that  these  returns  are  only  possible  under  the  well- 
organized  conditions  of  cooperative  farming.  The  crux  of 
the  matter,  then,  appears  to  be  association  with  others. 

So,  after  all,  to  be  a  scientist  and  to  stop  there  is  not 
enough  ;  one  must  be  an  organizer  as  well.  And  the  simple 
logic  seems  to  be,  either  keep  close  to  town,  notwithstanding 
excessive  rent,  or  combine  with  other  producers.  Would  there 
not  be  twofold  wisdom  in  doing  both  ? 

Turning  now  from  the  expert,  —  the  somewhat  rare  man 
whose  success  is  practically  assured,  —  let  us  consider  for  a 
moment  the  average  small  farmer  of  to-day  and  the  place  he 
occupies  in  the  community.  He  is  the  man  we  pass  on  every 
country  road.  Let  us  picture  somewhat  in  detail  the  life  he 
leads.  His  farm  is  somewhat  isolated ;  he  usually  owns 
more  land  than  he  can  properly  cultivate,  for  he  hires  little 
or  no  help  ;  its  very  extent  works  against  his  best  interest, 
since  he  has  not  the  ability  really  to  excel  in  anything.  He 
trades  in  the  village  ;  seeds,  for  example,  he  will  probably  buy 
at  retail.  In  addition  to  paying  high  rates  he  usually  ob- 
tains neither  a  large  choice  nor  a  fresh  stock.  Thanks,  how- 
ever, to  the  work  of  the  agricultural  stations,  where  tests 
are  made  free  of  charge,  no  farmer  nowadays  need  remain 
in  the  dark  as  to  the  quality  of  either  seed  or  fertilizer. 
Next  arises  the  question  of  implements.  These  must  be 
suitable  for  the  work  proposed,  even  if  they  are  not  the  latest 
inventions,  or  else,  in  the  midst  of  the  rush  season,  our 
friend  will  be  plodding  a  week  at  what  otherwise  could  easily 
be  done  in  a  day.  The  heavy  work  of  a  place,  such  as  the 
teaming  of  muck  and  manure  and  the  plowing,  always  adds 
greatly  to  the  first  cost.  Still,  for  a  small  farm,  —  too  small 
a  farm,  you  will  probably  say,  —  a  man  naturally  hesitates 
before  indulging  in  plows  and  patent  planting  and  weeding 
machines,  new  patterns  of  which  are  always  being  advertised. 


200  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

He  knows  very  well  that  the  plow  will  be  required  for  at  most 
a  few  days,  and  the  harrow  for  certainly  not  longer.  Spray- 
ing machines  and  large  forks  and  spades,  although  at  times 
imperative,  would  only  be  brought  out  occasionally  and  might 
not  be  used  more  than  two  weeks,  all  told.  So,  what  with  the 
delay  of  too  few  tools  on  the  one  hand  and  the  extravagance 
of  needless  expense  on  the  other,  it  is  a  toss-up  between  the 
rocks  and  the  whirlpool. 

Let  us  suppose,  however,  that  our  farmer  has  managed  to  get 
rich  crops  without  too  great  an  outlay.  He  has  hit  the  happy 
medium  of  buying  a  few  first-rate  tools  and  hiring  some  of 
the  heavy  labor.  It  is  safe  to  say,  then,  that  the  stuffs  he  has 
raised  will  generously  feed  the  family,  and  allow,  besides,  a 
good  deal  over.  This  overflow  must  find  sale,  if  possible,  in 
his  own  neighborhood.  If  not,  the  packing  and  shipping  of 
perishable  goods  to  a  distant  market  seriously  complicates  the 
whole  business.  Transportation  all  too  often  swallows  up  the 
profits ;  and  so,  little  by  little,  our  producer  must  withdraw 
from  a  losing  game.  Not  only  that ;  the  habit  grows  upon 
him  of  shutting  his  eyes  to  opportunities  of  every  sort,  until 
he  becomes  too  timid  to  take  even  the  most  innocent  risks. 
He  settles  down  and  becomes  a  perfect  mollusk. 

Nearly  every  countryside  furnishes  illustrations  of  such 
conditions.  One  illustration  that  recently  came  under  the 
writer's  eye  is  the  "  petering  out  "  of  the  strawberry  business 
in  a  New  Hampshire  county.  The  township  lies  about  one 
hundred  twenty-five  miles  from  Boston,  plus  four  miles  from 
a  railroad  station.  At  such  a  distance  country  produce  might 
be  supposed  to  be  practically  free  from  "  down-country  " 
competition.  Besides,  at  the  height  of  the  strawberry  season 
summer  residents  arrive,  eager  to  feast  upon  a  generous  diet 
of  native  vegetables  and  fruit.  The  prices  for  strawberries 
run  as  follows  :  native  berries  fifteen  cents  per  quart,  sold 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  2OI 

"  to  oblige  "  at  the  various  farms,  but  not  regularly  delivered 
even  in  the  village  centers.  These  berries  compete  with 
Boston  berries,  two  quarts  for  a  quarter,  which  are  sold  at  the 
village  provision  store,  or  will  be  delivered  within  reasonable 
limits.  Result :  the  village  store  is  stocked  with  city  prod- 
uce. Naturally  it  takes  the  easier  and  steadier  source  of 
supply ;  and  yet  this  very  township  could  not  for  a  moment 
be  described  as  the  "  hilly,  stony,  exhausted  margin  of  culti- 
vation." Quite  the  reverse ;  it  is  a  country  where,  nearly 
every  year,  excellent  apples  rot  on  the  ground,  and  where 
blackberries  and  raspberries  hang  shriveling  on  the  bushes, 
or  fall,  dead-ripe,  for  lack  of  picking.  Meanwhile,  the  scat- 
tered farmers,  land-poor,  drudge  from  dawn  till  dusk  to  make 
both  ends  meet. 

At  first,  one  is  always  puzzled  to  explain  why  this  stream 
of  "  green  groceries  "  invariably  flows  in  one  direction,  coun- 
tryward,  and  in  a  direction  exactly  contrary  to  what  might 
be  called  the  natural  laws  of  economic  gravitation.  But  the 
grade  of  country  produce  explains  this.  Quality,  after  all,  is 
the  thing,  and  far  back  in  the  country  this  is  rarely  high 
enough  to  bring  the  fancy  prices  which  would  cover  trans- 
portation ;  and,  of  course,  rates  which  a  railroad  might  make 
for  an  association  of  growers  would  by  no  chance  be  offered 
to  the  single  farmer.  Little  wonder  that  there  is  depression 
in  farming  circles. 

The  cure  of  any  trouble,  whether  local  or  national,  is 
often  best  reached  by  looking  beyond  our  own  borders.  So 
let  us  turn  our  attention  for  a  moment  to  the  present  agri- 
cultural situation  in  Europe.  The  Man  with  the  Hoe  is 
fortunately  not  an  American  product,  and  yet  who  shall 
say  that  he  cannot  teach  us  something  ?  Surely  the  story 
of  his  uplift  may  act  upon  our  own  countrymen  as  a  much- 
needed  tonic,  for  many  an  economic  danger  which  has 


202  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

threatened  America  has  first  forced  itself  upon  the  mother 
countries.  Let  us  follow  for  a  little  the  main  thread  of  their 
agricultural  history. 

A  gloomy  period  of  discontent,  which  may  truthfully  be 
called  Darkest  Agriculture,  has  long  been  prevailing  among 
the  small  farmers  all  over  Europe.  About  ten  years  ago  the 
storm  which  had  been  brewing  burst.  Its  cause  was  twofold : 
it  arose  from  the  farmer's  ignorance  and  from  his  isolation. 
Which  of  these  evils  was  the  worse  it  would  be  hard  to  say, 
because  the  isolation  from  which  he  suffered  was  not  purely 
geographical.  Isolation  is  too  often  a  state  of  mind  ;  jealousy, 
suspicion,  and  'greed  have  long  been  recognized  as  among 
the  most  perfect  of  human  insulators. 

It  appears,  according  to  John  Graham  Brooks,  that  there 
was  scarcely  a  district  in  all  Europe  where  the  small  farmer 
had  not  been  for  years  systematically  fooled  because  of  his 
economic  and  social  weakness.  The  past  records  tell  gloomy 
tales  of  extortion,  and  in  some  places  these  conditions  have 
continued  till  the  year  1905.  Little  more  than  a  slave,  the 
farmer  was  kept  down  by  middlemen  who  worked  his 
credulity  for  all  it  was  worth. 

Especially  in  regard  to  fertilizers,  where  even  a  primer  of 
chemistry  might  have  saved  him,  he  proved  an  easy  mark. 
One  story  reads  much  like  another.  In  Essex  County, 
England,  for  instance,  it  was  discovered  that  every  year  far- 
mers were  being  tricked  into  buying  artificial  manures,  liter- 
ally of  no  value,  at  something  like  twenty  dollars  per  ton. 
In  much  the  same  way  worthless  seeds  were  palmed  off 
upon  them.  No  wonder  that  these  distressing  conditions,  so 
widespread  and  so  steadily  on  the  increase  everywhere,  caused 
a  fever  of  unrest.  At  last  human  nature  could  endure  no 
longer ;  a  universal  cry  went  up  for  a  radical  cure.  The  re- 
sponse came  from  social  reformers  who  had  been  for  years 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  203 

working  at  such  problems.1  Scattered  though  they  had  been 
in  different  parts  of  Europe,  they  all  arrived  at  the  same 
fundamental  conclusions.  What  is  more,  the  remedy  which 
they  offered  has  had  virtually  the  same  effect  in  every  country 
that  has  begun  to  regain  its  social  and  agricultural  health. 
And  what  is  the  formula  for  this  golden  discovery  ?  It  sounds 
simple  ;  it  is  the  cure  by  cooperation,  and  the  basis  of  its 
efficacy  consists  in  restoring  to  the  tillers  of  the  soil  their 
sense  of  wholesome  dependence  one  upon  another. 

The  working  out  of  this  new-old  principle  marks  the  be- 
ginning of  a  superb  movement ;  in  fact,  cooperative  -agri- 
culture has  begun  to  sweep  across  Europe  with  the  onward 
push  of  a  great  wave.  Even  yet  it  has  probably  not  reached 
the  high-water  mark.  In  Denmark,  a  country  where  the  agri- 
culturist has  so  fully  come  into  his  own,  cooperation  was  first 
attained  by  a  determined  uprising  of  the  people  ;  in  Hungary 
it  originated  with  the  government ;  while  in  France  and  Bel- 
gium it  started  as  a  reform  headed  by  a  handful  of  keen- 
visioned  and  devoted  Catholic  priests.  This  binding  together 
of  whole  communities  for  progress  in  agriculture,  which  has 
in  every  case  adapted  itself  so  perfectly  to  the  peculiar  needs 
of  each  country,  makes  an  impressive  chapter  in  the  history 
of  our  time.  The  story  cannot  fail  to  thrill  the  reader. 

The  advance  of  cooperative  agriculture  in  Belgium  alone 
shows  the  scope  of  the  movement.  A  very  noble  type  of 
priest,  the  Abbe  Mellaerts,  in  about  1890  threw  himself  into 
it  heart  and  soul.  His  attention  was  first  aroused  by  the  little 
cooperative  banks  among  German  peasants.  The  business 
success  of  these  banks,  and  their  moral  influence,  so  impressed 
him  that  he  determined  to  found  on  the  same  lines  an  agri- 
cultural league.  Within  fifteen  years  this  league  counted  four 
hundred  thirty  active  branches,  with  thirty-two  thousand 

1  Kropotkin,  Fields,  Factories,  and  Workshops. 


204  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

members.  There  could  be  no  better  statement  of  the  funda- 
mental object  for  which  this  league  stands  than  the  third 
article  of  its  statutes  :  "  The  Agricultural  League  has  as  its 
object  the  promotion  of  religious,  intellectual  and  social 
progress  among  its  members  and  the  safeguarding  of  their 
material  interests  in  order  to  establish  a  class  of  strong 
Christian  agriculturists." 

To  judge  how  the  several  departments  have  grown,  one 
needs  only  to  examine  the  development  of  the  dairy  business. 
At  first  cooperative  dairies  formed  an  insignificant  branch  of 
the  work ;  and  yet,  although  in  1891  there  were  only  eleven 
dairies,  in  1905  there  were  in  operation  four  hundred  ninety- 
eight.  Postcamp  and  Antwerp,  moreover,  set  up  cooperative 
mills ;  at  present  they  raise  seeds  and  manufacture  oil  cake. 
Warehouses  have  been  established  everywhere. 

One  after  another  the  troubles  arising  from  all  these  long 
years  of  ignorance  and  misunderstanding  have  been  over- 
come. The  cooperative  buying  of  fertilizers,  machines,  and 
other  supplies  was  comparatively  easy  to  manage ;  but  the 
marketing  of  produce  on  a  grand  scale  is  a  difficult  matter 
and  in  every  case  has  proved  a  severe  test  of  loyalty  to  the 
federation.  Within  two  years  this  last  upward  step  has  been 
triumphantly  taken  :  namely,  that  of  selling  members'  prod- 
ucts to  an  outside  market. 

The  federation  provides  that  all  the  fertilizers  bought  by 
the  little  associations  shall  be  carefully  tested  by  expert 
chemists.  This  is  but  an  instance  of  how,  as  one  authority1 
puts  it,  "  cooperation  grown  strong  puts  the  man  of  science 
in  the  field." 

The  local  associations  not  only  employ  scientists  to  test 
and  purchase  manure  and  feeding  stuffs,  but  they  organize 
agricultural  credit,  mutual  insurance,  and  all  forms  of  banking 

1  John  Graham  Brooks. 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  205 

and  saving.  An  idea  of  the  business  done  by  the  Agricultural 
League  may  be  given  by  a  few  figures.  In  the  year  1906, 
for  example,  the  league  bought  for  the  use  of  its  affiliated 
societies  28,000,000  kilos  of  chemical  manures,  besides  more 
than  25,000,000  kilos  of  cattle  foods  costing  over  $1,000,000. 
The  same  year  its  banking  business  had  grown  till  it  reached 
a  turnover  of  more  than  $2,000,000.  The  amount  of  insur- 
ance and  savings  handled  by  it  has  increased  lately  to  enor- 
mous proportions.  Throughout  Europe,  in  the  places  which 
these  societies  cover,  the  material  gain  has  amounted  to  from 
20  to  40  per  cent.  What  such  opportunities  for  mutual  bene- 
fit may  mean  to  a  single  family  is  shown  by  a  concrete  ex- 
ample :  On  one  farm  of  twenty  acres,  for  instance,  cooperation 
has  easily  saved  a  margin  of  $480  each  year.  Think  what 
this  might  add  to  the  comfort  of  living ! 

Great  as  has  been  the  economic  gain,  the  moral  and  social 
value,  some  say,  is  even  higher.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
a  successful  "  cooperative  "  truly  educates  its  members.  This 
should  cause  no  surprise,  for  it  commands  applied  science, 
it  commands  honesty,  it  drives  out  suspicion  of  one's  neigh- 
bor, and  in  its  place  puts  confidence.  More  than  that,  "  it 
includes  the  ever-enlarging  good  of  others  as  a  part  of 
one's  own  welfare,"  says  Mr.  Brooks.  In  fine,  its  aim  is  to 
draw  men  together  and  not  to  separate  them  or  antagonize 
them ;  its  working  hypothesis  would  seem  to  be  science  and 
brotherhood.  Once  born  in  a  community,  the  social  conscience 
is  bound  to  grow  ;  new  visions  flash  across  the  sight ;  before 
long  the  whole  spiritual  perspective  becomes  changed.  The 
social  causes,  as  opposed  to  the  individual  causes,  of  evil  and 
injustice  are  for  the  first  time  shown  up.  Intolerance,  whether 
ecclesiastical  or  political,  appears  in  all  its  ugliness. 

The  present  solidarity  of  the  European  farmers,  which  is 
to-day  so  remarkable,  has,  as  we  have  seen,  been  reached  along 


206  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

no  easy  road ;  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  they  have 
been  whipped  to  it  by  degradation  and  misery.  Through 
discipline  they  are  at  last  attaining  self-respect,  brotherhood, 
and  economic  prosperity. 

These  experiences  from  overseas  set  us  thinking.  We 
begin  to  suspect  that  the  troubles  of  the  agriculturist  are  much 
the  same  the  world  over,  and  that  they  may  be  traced  to  the 
same  general  causes.  Let  us  turn  this  new  light  upon  the 
situation  at  home.  The  condition  of  the  average  farmer  of 
whom  we  have  spoken  is  the  culmination  of  events  for  years 
past.  Looking  back,  we  see  a  land  of  promise  being  igno- 
rantly  skimmed  of  its  richness  ;  on  every  side  there  is  woeful 
waste  of  land  and  labor ;  and  we  see,  in  proportion  to  the 
resources  of  the  soil,  strangely  low  standards  of  happiness  and 
opportunity.  We  see  streams  of  boys  and  girls,  who  have 
been  tutored  by  city-bred  teachers  to  admire  and  long  for  city 
ways  and  occupations,  moving  steadily  town  ward. 

Of  those  left  stranded  on  the  old  place,  however,  a  large 
proportion  are  groping  along  by  guesswork  ;  their  occupation 
has  generally  been  taken  up  by  chance,  not  by  choice;  they 
are  impervious  to  new  methods  in  science  or  business.  But 
a  greater  obstacle  to  success  than  ignorance  of  scientific 
methods  is  the  solitude  which  has  often  made  an  otherwise 
fine  character  cranky  or,  in  country  phrase,  "  stiff  necked." 
Who  cannot  bring  to  mind  such  a  figure,  at  once  impres- 
sive and  pathetic  ?  It  is  his  obstinacy  ("independence"  is  his 
name  for  it)  that  drags  back  every  step  that  he  would  take 
toward  progress  and  prosperity.  In  fact,  even  when  "  Farmer! 
farmer!"  is  sung  out  from  one  school  child  to  another,  it 
teases  not  so  much  because  it  points  at  ignorance  or  baggy 
clothes  or  at  mere  physical  awkwardness  as  because  it  im- 
plies that  peculiar  and  aggravating  angularity  of  mind  which 
remains  sharp  and  unrounded  from  lack  of  sympathetic 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  2O/ 

contact  with  men  and  affairs.  This  is  not  fair,  you  say ;  and 
yet  how  often  is  expert  advice  met  by  farmers  with  dogged 
silence,  or  sometimes  with  such  frankness  as  "  I  don't  want 
any  book  larnin';  nobody  from  Washington  need  tell  me 
how  to  raise  corn."  There  always  appear  on  the  scene,  in 
slightly  varying  dress,  the  same  old  hindrances,  —  ignorance 
and  isolation. 

Still,  how  can  it  reasonably  be  expected  that  natures  which 
for  years  have  been  chilled  by  a  lonely,  breadwinning  life, 
and  which  perhaps  have  been  further  stiffened  by  local  or 
family  prejudices  passed  down  with  the  farm  (for  a  prejudice 
is  sometimes  as  real  as  a  mortgage),  will  suddenly  warm  to 
a  cooperative  suggestion  ?  This  would  be  asking  too  much. 
The  effective  use  of  cooperation,  —  its  technic,  so  to  speak, 
—  can  come  only  with  practice. 

And  yet,  is  association  for  a  common  cause  so  artificial  a 
means  of  attaining  results  ?  Is  it  merely  a  floating  spar,  to  be 
clutched  at  in  social  shipwreck  and  then  .tossed  aside  when 
the  unfortunates  have  drifted  safely  to  shore  ?  No ;  it  is  a  force 
which  underlies  and  shapes  the  whole  structure  of  society. 
Possibly  some  of  the  phrases  commonly  used  in  connection 
with  evolution,—  "  struggle  for  existence,"  "survival  of  the 
fittest,"  and  other  biological  terms,  —  may  be  a  little  mis- 
leading ;  they  may  be  responsible  for  the  assumption  that  the 
great  fundamental  law  of  life  is  competition.  There  is  really 
no  foothold  for  such  a  belief,  although  no  one  would  deny 
that  competition  has  its  place. 

Within  recent  years  research  has  brought  to  light  the  great 
social  impulses  that  belong  to  all  primitive  peoples,  as  well  as 
those  social  impulses  shown  to  be  dominant  even  among  ani- 
mals, —  for  animals  enjoy  many  hitherto  unsuspected  forms 
of  social  life.1  Science,  indeed,  leaves  no  room  for  doubt 

1  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid. 


208  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

that  the  instinct  for  cooperation,  feeble  though  it  appears  at 
times,  perverted  though  it  may  often  be,  is  really  firmly  rooted 
in  the  heart  of  man.  We  are  brothers  all ;  given  half  a  chance 
and  the  brotherhood  of  man  asserts  itself.  We  will  not  yield 
here  to  the  temptation  of  discussing  how  this  instinct  of  the 
race  has  become  dulled.  True  it  is,  no  doubt,  that  the  feelings 
of  confidence  and  brotherhood  are  not  so  much  blunted  as 
stratified.  Put  in  geological  terms,  each  stratum  would  repre- 
sent a  certain  distinct  standard  of  living.  According  to  this 
idea  a  person  might  readily  understand  the  struggles  and 
triumphs  of  those  in  his  own  stratum,  but  very  imperfectly 
those  of  another.  This  may  account  for  the  sharp  cleavage 
that  often  separates  classes,  shown  by  the  lurking  distrust  of 
mankind  found  in  the  hearts  of  otherwise  sympathetic  and 
broad-minded  persons. 

Nevertheless,  for  whatever  cause  any  of  us  may  have  failed 
to  grasp  the  whole  meaning  of  cooperation,  the  time  has  come 
when  we  should  pledge  ourselves  not  merely  to  the  theory 
but  to  its  practice.  The  test  of  loyalty  to  any  principle  is  its 
effect  upon  behavior.  But  old  habits  persist ;  the  full  force 
of  cooperative  methods  can  only  be  learned  by  constant  prac- 
tice during  the  formative  period  of  life. 

We  have  shown  in  the  foregoing  chapters  how  children 
are  enjoying  the  chance  to  work  cooperatively  in  school  gar- 
dening. Grown-ups  see  their  opportunity  in  modern  farming. 
A  trained  man  is  not  only  welcomed  ;  he  is  sought.  The  land 
is  calling  for  the  right  sort  of  men  ;  it  cannot  get  enough. 
We  have  already  shown  some  of  the  qualities  that  such  men 
must  have. 

It  may  reasonably  be  asked  whether  all  this  anxiety  for  our 
rural  prosperity  is  quite  justified.  Of  course,  in  the  outworn 
farms  of  older  countries  there  is  need  of  thorough  reform  ; 
but  why  should  we,  in  a  country  rich  and  young,  urge 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  209 

attention  to  these  points?  Our  wealth  has  always  been  re- 
garded as  inexhaustible. 

Nevertheless,  no  thinking  person  can  shut  his  eyes  to  cer- 
tain national  calamities  that  are  advancing  upon  us ;  unless 
we  anticipate  them  we  shall,  before  we  know  it,  be  over- 
whelmed. Two  of  these,  in  particular,  may  be  pointed  out. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  from  time  to  time  that  an 
entire  crop  for  miles  around  is  attacked  by  insects.  These 
spread  from  farm  to  farm,  from  county  to  county,  from  state 
to  state.  They  can  be  destroyed  by  prompt  and  intelligent 
measures,  but  only  by  concerted  action  on  the  part  of  all  the 
inhabitants.  Take,  for  example,  the  recent  attack  of  the 
cotton-boll  weevil  in  the  South,  against  which  active  warfare 
is  being  waged.  The  ravages  of  pests  like  these  leave  in 
their  wake  poverty  and  desolation  ;  sometimes  whole  districts 
have  been  ruined. 

A  further  peril  is  foreseen  by  statesmen.  They  picture  the 
land  drained  of  its  best  men,  skimmed  of  its  nutriment, 
and  its  crops  destroyed  by  pests.  These  conditions  must 
inevitably  affect  the  food  supply  of  a  great  nation.  Failing 
to  produce  enough  food,  we  shall  have  to  be  fed  by  for- 
eign peoples  either  within  our  borders  or  outside,  —  per- 
haps both.  The  danger  to  the  country  at  large  is  that  our 
farm  lands,  once  deserted,  may  be  quickly  taken  up  by  im- 
migrants who,  bringing  with  them  distinctly  lower  standards, 
will,  before  they  can  be  assimilated  into  our  national  life, 
get  control  of  it  and  us. 

Those  who  watch  the  times  are  telling  us  these  plain  truths 
in  one  way  or  another  every  day.  What  measures,  if  any,  are 
being  taken  to  avoid  these  dangers  ?  With  varying  success 
the  grange  and  the  farmers'  institutes  have  been  constantly 
raising  the  level  of  country  intelligence.  Happily  much 
is  already  being  done  by  the  Agricultural  Department  at 


210  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

Washington,  by  the  experiment  stations,  and  by  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  all  over  the  country.  Instruction  has  been 
persistently  given  by  means  of  bulletins  and  leaflets  prepared 
by  experts.  The  results,  however,  have  been  somewhat  disap- 
pointing, for  there  are  regions  where  only  about  one  per  cent 
of  the  farmers  have  made  any  connection  with  these  centers. 
New  plans,  therefore,  are  on  foot.  The  experts  have  learned  to 
depend  no  longer  upon  reaching  farmers  by  means  of  printed 
bulletins.  They  are  opening  correspondence  courses  with  in- 
dividuals and  clubs.  They  are  sending  members  of  their  staff 
into  certain  neighborhoods  as  social  engineers.  These  men 
and  women  bear  no  official  title,  but  their  mission  is  to  carry 
on  model  farms,  to  win  the  confidence  of  their  neighbors,  and 
to  lay  the  foundation  for  closer  connection  with  the  colleges. 
With  the  assistance  of  the  railroads  they  are  sending  out 
" Better- Farming  Specials,"  as  they  are  called,  —  trains  in- 
geniously equipped  for  agricultural  teaching,  which  stop,  as 
advertised,  at  certain  central  points,  for  demonstration  to  the 
farmers,  who  gather  from  miles  around.  Moreover,  they  are 
helping  the  farmers  themselves  to  organize  in  associations  for 
better  produce  and  for  scientific  breeding,  after  the  methods 
of  the  Danes.  Some  of  the  conspicuous  cooperative  organ- 
izations already  doing  effective  work  among  us  are  those  of 
the  fruit  growers  in  the  West,  of  the  cranberry  raisers  in 
New  England,  and  the  cooperative  dairies.  At  present,  or- 
ganizations of  this  sort  are  all  too  few  in  America. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  most  hopeful  sign  of  all  is  the 
way  in  which  the  children  are  being  won  over  to  the  interests 
of  country  life  before  they  begin  to  feel  the  pull  of  the  city. 
The  corn  and  potato  clubs  started  for  children  by  the  govern- 
ment, offering  definite  honors  to  the  winners  of  certificates, 
might  alone  be  said  to  mark  a  new  era  in  rural  neighbor- 
hoods, for  the  reason  that  they  recognize  the  influence  that 


THE   NEW  AGRICULTURE 


211 


a  band  of  youngsters  exerts  in  the  community.1  In  short,  no 
factor  is  neglected  which  can  contribute  to  the  betterment  of 
country  life.  Everybody  is  needed ;  all  forces  are  pressed  into 
service,  —  the  trolley,  the  telephone,  the  community  church, 
the  model  kitchen,  the  model  garden,  and  the  country  school. 
Indeed,  the  country  school,  around  which  so  much  is  begin- 
ning to  center,  is  probably  destined  to  be  the  leading  school 


TEXAS    BOYS    AND    THEIR    PRIZE-WINNING   EARS    OF    CORN 


in  the  land.  It  will  train  its  students  for  a  large  and  generous 
life  in  the  country,  and  there,  through  interest  and  success, 
they  will  be  held. 

The  broad  fields  east  and  west  are  calling  for  young  people 
who  are  in  love  with  the  great  outdoors.  Idealists,  above  all, 
are  wanted,  for  the  true  idealists  are  the  ones  who  can  "toil 
terribly."  They  are  those  who,  in  order  to  make  their  dreams 

1  See  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs,  Agricultural  Bulletin  No.  385,  February,  1910. 


212  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

come  true,  can  harness  themselves  up  and  tug  and  pull.  Our 
country  needs,  moreover,  young  people  who  so  keenly  want 
to  get  at  the  truth  that  they  will  tease  nature  with  their  ques- 
tions and  never  stop  till  they  get  the  right  answers,  with  all 
the  proofs.  Especially  does  it  need  those  rare  persons  who 
know  how  to  intensify  their  own  working  power  by  joining 
with  others  in  a  common  cause.  This  is  the  essence  of  the 
new  agriculture. 

And  now  what  does  the  new  agriculture  give  in  return? 
A  wholesome  life  :  sound  lungs  and  a  good  appetite,  together 
with  the  means  of  satisfying  it  and  of  providing  for  others 
liberally.  It  presents  a  business  opening,  not  always  of  the  first 
rank  from  the  money  standpoint,  to  be  sure,  but  first  in  returns 
that  are  better  than  dollars.  It  offers  a  life  brimming  with 
opportunity.  The  days  are  not  long  enough  for  the  marvelous 
tales  and  the  wonderful  songs  that  Nature,  the  old  nurse,  sings 
when,  set  free  from  anxiety  and  from  too  much  drudgery,  the 
practical  farmer  and  the  poet  meet  on  common  ground. 

Again,  agriculture  gives  a  life  scholarship  in  the  best  labo- 
ratory that  the  world  has  ever  known,  —  a  workshop  where 
every  investigator  may  confidently  look  forward  to  the  exhila- 
ration of  discovery,  while  the  discovery  itself  will  add  directly  to 
his  own  and  his  neighbor's  welfare.  It  would  be  hard  to  find 
another  calling  which  offers  to  workmen  of  all  grades  such  gen- 
uine possibilities.  Is  it  not  true  that  most  breadwinners  expect 
little  else  than  —  like  dull,  superannuated  car  horses  —  to  trot 
monotonously  along  the  track  laid  down  by  some  corporation  ? 

Finally,  the  true  agriculturist  is  a  pioneer.  He  discovers ; 
he  subdues.  A  campaign  against  the  stubborn,  subtle  forces 
of  the  earth  demands  sacrifice,  fortitude,  heroism.  These 
qualities  make  the  martial  spirit,  — •-  that  love  of  battle  which, 
it  is  said,  cannot  and  must  not  be  tamed  within  us.1  But 

1  William  James,  Moral  Equivalent  of  War. 


THE  NEW  AGRICULTURE  213 

there  is  a  difference :  in  agriculture  the  army  marches  not 
to  possible  destruction  but  to  actual  production.  In  it  have 
enlisted  the  soldiers  of  the  soil.  To-day  this  thought  is  tak- 
ing visible  form.  It  is  the  birth  of  a  new  agriculture.  We 
are  already  seeing  what  has  well  been  called  the  Agricultural 
Renaissance. 

The  hope  of  the  new  agriculture  centers,  as  we  have  seen, 
in  the  children.  They  bring  to  school  natures  courageous  and 
unspoiled.  The  germ  of  the  scientific  spirit  within  them  is 
surely  active  enough ;  it  lies  in  their  everlasting  curiosity. 
Confidence  in  comrades  is  at  its  highest.  The  social  instincts 
of  childhood,  also,  are  irrepressible.  Beginning  with  short 
and  easy  steps,  it  is  for  the  educator  to  develop  these  precious 
impulses  in  children  to  fuller  and  larger  conceptions  of  ad- 
venture, of  leadership,  and  of  solidarity.  As  they  grow  older 
and  enter  practical  life,  they  seize  upon  cooperative  ways  and 
means  with  such  zest  as  only  young  people  can  show  who 
have  tried  team  play  in  their  studies.  For  they  know  —  they 
have  learned  without  any  telling  —  that  a  self -organized  team 
is  the  best  dynamo  ever  invented  for  getting  things  done. 
They  realize  the  supreme  happiness  of  working  together. 
They  know,  besides,  that  through  mutual  aid  the  strength  of 
each,  be  he  weak  or  strong,  is  the  strength  of  all.  If  not 
taken  in  too  narrow  a  sense,  competition  might  be  called  the 
tug  of  war.  Cooperation,  then,  is  the  tug  of  peace. 

The  equipment  demanded  by  a  youngster  of  ambition  and 
aspiration  now  becomes  clear.  He  must  be  trained  from  the 
beginning  and  throughout  his  entire  school  life  in  the  methods 
of  both  science  and  cooperation,  so  that  he  may  develop  the 
power  of  controlling  natural  forces  and  of  leading  men. 
Loyalty,  leadership,  science,  are  the  three  vital  qualities  that 
insure  his  success.  Gardening,  then,  worked  out  at  school 
after  some  such  plan  as  has  been  sketched  in  these  pages, 


214 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


will  be  a  powerful  lever  to  raise  agriculture —  rightly  viewed, 
the  most  rewarding  of  occupations — from  the  humble  plane, 
where  it  has  long  remained,  to  the  heights  which  it  is  destined 
to  command. 


APPENDIX 

A   SHORT   LIST   OF  USEFUL   BOOKS 

BOOKS  ON  GARDEN  MAKING 

BAILEY,  LIBERTY  H.    The  New  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture ;  Practical 

Gardening  ;   Principles  of  Agriculture. 

BAILEY  AND  HUNN.    The  Amateur's  Practical  Garden  Book. 
BROOKS.    Soils  and  How  to  Treat  Them. 
FULLERTON,  EDITH  L.    How  to  Make  a  Vegetable  Garden. 
FRENCH,  ALLEN.   A  Book  of  Vegetables. 
GOODRICH,  CHARLES  L.    The  First  Book  of  Farming. 
KING,  FRANKLIN  H.    Text-Book  of  the  Physics  of  Agriculture;  The 

Soil. 

LIPMAN,  JACOB  G.    Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life. 
POWELL,  EDWARD  P.    The  Country  Home. 
WEED,  CLARENCE  M.    Insects  and  Insecticides. 

BOOKS  OF  SPECIAL  INTEREST  TO  TEACHERS 

EMERSON  AND  WEED.    School  Garden  Book. 

GREEN,  MARIA  L.    Among  School  Gardens. 

Hampton  Institute.    Nature  Study  Bureau  Leaflets. 

HAYES.    Rural  School  Agriculture. 

HODGE,  C.  F.    Nature  Study  and  Life. 

JACKSON  AND  DOUGHERTY.  Agriculture  through  the  Laboratory  and 
School  Garden. 

JORDAN,  ALICE.  A  Brief  List  of  Books  about  Gardening  for  Boys  and 
Girls.1 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  Public  School  Agriculture;  Sug- 
gestive Exercises. 

OSTERHOUT,  WINTHROP.    Experiments  with  Plants. 

SARGENT,  FREDERICK  LEROY.    Corn  Plants. 

*  Published  by  Boston  Public  Library. 
2I5 


2l6  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

BOOKS  SHOWING  GARDENING  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LIFE 

BAILEY,  LIBERTY  H.    The  State  and  the  Farmer. 
BAILEY,  LIBERTY  H.    The  Country  Life  Movement. 
FAY,  C.  R.    Cooperation  at  Home  and  Abroad. 
HALL,  BOLTON.    Three  Acres  and  Liberty. 
KROPOTKIN,  P.    Fields,  Factories,  and  Workshops. 
PRATT,  E.  A.    Organization  of  Agriculture. 
HAGGARD,  H.  RIDER.    Rural  Denmark. 
SCOTT,  COLIN  A.    Social  Education. 
UNDERWOOD,  LORING.    The  Garden  and  its  Accessories. 

PAMPHLETS  THAT  MAY  BE  SECURED  FREE  OF  CHARGE 

1.  Bulletins  of  the  experiment  station  of  your  state. 

2.  Bulletins  of  other  states. 

3.  Publications l  from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington  : 

One  complete  set  of  Farmers'  Bulletins. 

One  copy  of  the  list  of  bulletins  for  free  distribution. 

One  copy  of  the  list  of  publications  for  sale. 

One  copy  of  reprints  of  the  field  operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils 

for  each  of  the  areas  surveyed  in  New  York  state. 
Copies  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  44,  123,  143,  154,  157,  187,  203, 

218,  229,  255,  260. 

4.  From  the  Weather  Bureau  : 

Daily  weather  map. 

HANDY   LISTS   FOR   CHILDREN'S   GARDENS 

TEN    POPULAR    FLOWERING    PLANTS    FOR    HOME    AND    SCHOOL 
GARDENS 

California  poppy,  Eschscholtzia  Columbine 

Californica  Cosmos,  Cosmos  spp. 

China  asters,  Callistephus  hor-  Four-o'clock 

tensis  Marigold,  Tagetes  spp. 

1  Some   of  these   may  be   secured  without   cost  by  writing   to   your 
congressman. 


APPENDIX 


Morning-glory,  Ipomoea  pur- 

purea 
Nasturtium,  Tropaeolum  spp. 


Verbena,  Verbena  spp. 
Zinnia,  Zinnia  spp. 


PLANTS  OF  DIFFERENT  HEIGHTS 


Five  tall  plants  (three  feet  and      Five  middle-sized  plants  (two  feet 


over) 

Cosmos 

Hollyhock 

Larkspur,  Delphinium  formo- 
sum 

Sunflower  (Helianthus  orgya- 
lis  for  screen,  or  Helianthus 
cucumerifolius  for  hedge) 

Tobacco  (Nicotiana  alata) 

Five  short  plants  (one  foot  high) 

Columbine 

Cornflower 

Marigold 

Petunia 

Poppy 


and  over) 

Canterbury  bells 

Foxglove 

Phlox 

Poppy,  Papaver  spp. 

Salvia 


Five  low  plants 

California  poppy 

Dwarf  nasturtium 

Portulaca 

Sweet  alyssum,  Alyssum  mari- 

timum 
Zinnia  ("  Red  Riding-Hood  ") 


FLOWERS  BY  COLOR 
Five  pink  v  flowers 

Cosmos 

Foxglove 

Gladiolus 

Hollyhock 

Phlox  drummondii 


Five  red* flowers 

Aster 

Canna 

Phlox 

Poppy,  Papaver  spp. 

Salvia 


1  Don't  put  pink  with  orange  reds. 

2  Don't  put  magenta  with  purple  and  red. 


218 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


Five  purple  flowers 

Aster,  Callistephus  hortensis 

Cobaea  scandens 

Columbine 

Petunia 

Stock 

Five  blue  flowers 

Ageratum 
Bachelor's-button 
Larkspur 
Verbena  venosa 
Scabiosa  caucasica 

Five  yellow  flowers 

California  poppy 

Marigold 

Golden  glow,  Rudbeckia 

Sunflower 

Zinnia 


Five  white  flowers 

Canterbury  bells 

Candytuft 

Columbine 

Phlox  drummondii 

Sweet  alyssum 


Flowers  varying  in  color 

Sweet  pea 

Nicotiana 

Morning-glory 

Nasturtium 

Aster 

Verbena 

Phlox 

Portulaca 


TEN  POPULAR  VINES 

Hop,  common,  Humulus  lu- 

pulus  ;  Japanese,  Humulus 

Japonicus 
Morning-glory,  Ipomoea  pur- 

purea  or  versicolor 
Cobaea  scandens 
Boston  ivy,  Ampelopsis  tricus- 

pidata 


Clematis  paniculata 
Trumpet  creeper,  Tecoma  ra- 

dicans 

Bean  (Scarlet  runner) 
Bittersweet,  Celastrus  scandens 
Gourds,  wild  cucumber 
Tall  nasturtium,  for  climbing 

(Jupiter,  Sunlight,  Vesuvius) 


WILD  FLOWERS  THAT  THRIVE  UNDER  CULTIVATION 

Columbine        Bloodroot        Hepatica        Mallow        Goldenrod 


APPENDIX  219 

PLANTS  FOR  SHADY  PLACES 

Phlox  divaricata  Shooting    star,    Dodecatheon 
Lily   of   the   valley,    Conval-  Meadia 

laria  Bluebells,  Mertensia pulmona- 
Anemone  Pennsylvania*  rioides 

HARDY  FERNS  SUITABLE  FOR  A  GARDEN 

Christmas  fern,  Polystichum  Osmunda  regalis,  Royal  fern 

acrostichoides  Polypody,  Polypodium  vulgare 

Sensitive  fern,  Onoclea  sensi-  Lady  Fern,  Asplenium  Filix- 

bilis  femina 

TEN  PLANTS  FOR  THE  HERB  GARDEN  (PERENNIALS) 

Sage  Pennyroyal 

Lavender  Rosemary 

Peppermint  Horehound 

Marjoram  Fennel 

Catnip  Winter  savory 


PLANTING  TABLE. 


WHEN  T 

o  sow  SEED 

WHEN  TO  SET 

Frames 

Outdoors 

OUT  PLANTS 

Ageratum    

April   .... 

May.     ...... 

Late  May  to  late 
June 

Alyssum,  annual  .     .     . 

April    .... 

May  i  to  June  15 

May  15  to  June  15 

Aquilegia  (Columbine)  . 

June  15  to  Sept.  15 

May  to  Sept.   .     . 

Aster                     . 

June  15  to  Sept   15 

May  i  to  June  15 

Canterbury  bells  .     .     . 

June  15  to 
Sept.  15 

June  15  to  Sept.  15 

May  15  to  June  10 

Candytuft    

April  to  May 

May  15  to  June  15 

May  15  to  June  15 

Cornflower  (Bachelor's- 

April  15  to  June  15 

button} 

Aug.  30  to  Oct.  30 

Cosmos,  dwarf      .     .     . 

April  to  May 

May  15  to  June  i 

May  15  to  June  15 

Digitalis  (Foxglove)  .     . 

June  to  Aug. 

June  to  Sept.      .     . 

May  i  to  June  i 

Helianthus  (Sunflower') 

April  to  May 

May  15  to  June  15 

May  15  to  June  15 

Ipomoea  (Morning-glory) 

April  15  to  June  i 

Larkspur      

April  to  May 

May  10  to  June  15 

May  15  to  June  15 

Marigold      

April  to  May 

May  to  June 

May  15  to  June  15 

Nasturtium       .... 

March  to  May 

May  i  to  June  15 

May  15  to  June  15 

Poppv 

April  to  June 

Sept.  to  Oct. 

Portulaca     

April  to  June 

Salvia 

May 

Sweet  Pea   

March  to  April 

Verbena  

March  to  May 

May  

May  to  June    .     . 

Zinnia      

May 

May  to  June    . 

220 


TWENTY    FLOWERS1 


DISTANCE 

APART 

HEIGHT  OF 
PLANTS  2 

SEASON  OF 
BLOOM 

COLOR  OF  FLOWER 

6  inches 

4-8  inches 

June  to  Oct. 

Blue,  white 

4  inches 

3-6  inches 

June  to  Oct. 

White 

8  inches 

2%  feet 

June  to  Sept. 

White,  yellow,  blue,  pink,  varie- 
gated 

12  inches 

1-3  feet 

October 

White,  pink,  blue 

12  inches 

2-2%  feet 

June  to  Aug. 

Blue,  white,  pink 

4  inches 

i  foot 

June  to  Oct. 

White,  pink,  red,  purple 

Thin  out 

2  feet 

June  to  Oct. 

Blue,  white,  pink 

12  inches 

2%  feet 

July  to  Sept. 

White,  pink,  red 

9  inches 

3-4  feet 

July  to  Aug. 

Pink,  white,  blue 

9-18  inches 

3-10  feet 

July  to  Oct. 

Yellow,  white 

Thin  out 

15-20  feet 

July  to  Sept. 

Red,  white,  blue 

6  inches 

15  inches 

June  to  Sept. 

Red,  white,  pink,  blue 

6  inches 

8  inches  to 
3  feet 

July  to  Oct. 

Yellow,  red,  brown 

6  inches 

i-io  feet 

June  to  Oct. 

Yellow,  red,  orange,  pink,  brown, 
crimson 

Thin  out 

1-2  feet 

June  to  Aug. 

Pink,  red,  white,  yellow,  purple 

Thin  out 

4  inches 

July  to  Oct. 

Pink,  red,  white,  yellow 

18  inches 

2%  feet 

Aug.  to  Sept. 

Scarlet 

Thin  out 

6  feet 

July  to  Sept. 

All  colors 

6  inches 

6  inches 

June  to  Oct. 

Red,  white,  pink,  blue 

6  inches 

1-3  feet 

June  to  Oct. 

Red,  white,  pink,  yellow 

1  Dates  apply  to  southern  New  England. 
221 


2  Under  best  conditions. 


PLANTING  TABLE. 


WHEN  TO 

Sow  SEED 

WHEN  TO  SET 

Frames 

Outdoors 

OUT  PLANTS 

Beans  string        .... 

May  to  Aug.  . 

Beans   Lima    

April  on  sod 

June  .... 

End  of  May 

Beets       

May  to  Aug.   . 

Cabbage,  early      .... 

March    .     .     . 

May  .... 

May  to  June 

Carrots                  .... 

May  to  June 

Cauliflower,  early      .     .     . 

April  to  May  . 

May  .... 

May  .     .     . 

Corn  

April  to  May  . 

May  to  June   . 

May  to  June 

April 

May  to  June 

Kohl-rabi     

May  to  June    . 

May  to  June   . 

June  .     .     . 

Lettuce   

March  to  April 

May  to  Aug 

May  to  Aug. 

Muskmelon      

April  to  May  . 

May  to  June 

May  to  June 

Onion  seed 

April  to  May 

Onion  sets 

April  to  June 

Parsley    

March  to  May 

May  .... 

May  .     .     . 

Peas  early  smooth 

Potato 

April       .     . 

Radish 

March  to  April 

Spinach  



April  to  June  . 



Tomato 

Feb  to  April 

May 

May  to  June 

Turnip 

TWENTY  VEGETABLES1 


DEPTH  TO  sow 
SEED 

DISTANCE  APART 
IN  THE  ROW 

AMOUNT  OF  SEED 

SEASON  OF 
CROP 

2  inches       .... 

i  quart  for  100  feet   . 

July  to  Sept. 

2  inches  

i  quart  for  100  feet   .     . 

Aug.  to  Sept. 

l/n  inch     

i  ounce  for  50  feet    .     . 

July  to  Sept. 

%  inch     

12  inches 

i  ounce  for  2000  plants 

July  to  Aug. 

Raked  into  surface  . 

i  ounce  for  100  feet  .     . 

July  to  Oct. 

%  inch     

24  inches 

i  ounce  for  2000  plants 

July 

iV2  inches    .... 

12  inches 

i  quart  for  100  hills  .     . 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

l/»  inch 

3  plants  in  a  hill         . 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

l/s  inch     ..... 

6  inches 

i  ounce  for  200  feet  .     . 

Aug.  to  Sept. 

V4  inch         .     . 

i  ounce  for  120  feet  . 

June  to  Oct. 

i  inch 

10  seeds  in  a  hill  . 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

%  inch    .... 

i  ounce  for  100  feet  . 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

i  inch      

3  inches 

i  quart  for  50  feet     .     . 

June  to  Sept. 

Y2  inch    .     . 

8  inches 

i  ounce  for  150  feet  . 

June  to  Oct. 

4  inches  

thick 

i  quart  for  100  feet   . 

June 

4  inches  

12  inches 

i  peck  for  100  hills   .     . 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

V2inch    

2  inches 

i  ounce  for  100  feet  .     . 

May  to  Oct. 

%  inch 

May  to  Aug. 

V4inch    .     . 

-)  feet 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

V4inch    

4  inches 

i  ounce  for  150  feet  .     . 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

Dates  apply  to  southern  New  England. 
223 


224  GARDENS  AND   THEIR   MEANING 

SUGGESTIVE    EXPERIMENTS    SUITABLE    FOR    YOUNG 
GARDENERS1 

I.   PRESENCE  OF  AIR  IN  THE  SOIL 

(a)  Materials.    Soil  and  flowerpot  or  can,  beaker  of  water. 
Directions.    Submerge  pot  of  earth  in  water.   Air  bubbles  will 

arise  from  soil.    Same  may  be  shown  by  clod  of  earth  in  water. 

(b)  Materials.    Six  beakers,  graduate,  soil  samples. 
Directions.   Put  a  measured  amount  of  soil  (about  250  ccm.)  into 

each  beaker.  Pour  water  into  the  beaker  from  the  graduate  (con- 
taining a  measured  quantity)  until  it  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
Find  how  much  water  it  takes  in  each  case,  recording  results. 

II.   SOIL  TEMPERATURES 

Materials.    Two  or  three  thermometers, 

Directions.  Take  this  excursion  on  a  bright  spring  day  when 
plowing  begins.  To  take  the  temperature  of  a  soil,  bury  the  bulb 
of  the  thermometer  about  three  inches  deep  in  the  soil.  Very 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  break  the  thermometer.  Leave 
the  thermometer  imbedded  for  from  10  to  20  minutes,  so  as  to 
obtain  correct  results.  Take  the  temperature  of  the  soil  on  a 
northern  and  on  a  southern  slope,  also  of  clay  and  sand,  of  un- 
plowed  and  freshly  plowed  fields,  and  of  grass  and  tilled  fields. 
In  each  case  try  to  find  adjacent  soils  that  are  alike  except  in  the 
two  things  to  be  compared. 

You  will  probably  find  that  the  one  mentioned  second  in  each 
case  is  the  warmer.  Why  ? 

III.    CAPILLARY  RISE  OF  WATER  IN  SOILS 

Materials.  Two  small  glass  plates,  three  glass  tubes  (three  feet 
long  and  from  one  and  one  half  to  two  inches  in  diameter),  pan  of 

1  Adapted  from  Public  School  Agriculture,  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
College. 


APPENDIX 


225 


water,  rubber  bands,  cloth,  sand,  loam,  clay.  Lamp  chimneys  may 
be  used  in  place  of  glass  tubes. 

Directions,  (a)  Fasten  the  two  glass  plates  together  by  a  rubber 
band.  Put  a  thin  splint  between  the  plates  at  one  side  and  set  in 
water.  Note  the  varying  height  to  which  the  water  rises  between 
the  plates,  and  why.  Make  illustrative  drawing. 

(b)  Put  a  piece  of  cloth  over  the  end  of  each  tube  and  fasten 
with  a  rubber  band.  Fill  each  with  one  of  the  soils,  set  in  a  pan  of 
water,  and  note  in  which  the  water  rises  the  most  rapidly.  Record 
results  as  follows : 

HEIGHT   OF  WATER 


TIME 

SAND 

LOAM 

CLAY 

One  half-hour 

One  hour    . 

One  day      .     .     . 

Two  days    .     .     . 

Continue  this  for  about  a  week.  Note  in  which  the  water  rises 
highest,  and  why.  Compare  the  rise  indicated  with  that  of  oil  in  a 
lamp  wick,  ink  in  a  blotter,  etc. 

What  is  the  object  of  compacting  the  soil  over  seeds  when 
planted  ? 

IV.   EVAPORATION  FROM  THE  SOIL 

Materials.  Spring  balance,  three  tin  cans  with  holes  in  the  side, 
string  for  a  bail,  soil,  fine  grass. 

Directions.  Nearly  fill  each  can  with  soil,  adding  equal  amounts 
of  water  to  each.  Leave  the  surface  of  one  can  undisturbed.  As 
soon  as  the  surface  of  the  second  is  dry  enough,  stir  it  to  a  depth 
of  about  one  inch,  and  keep  it  stirred.  Cover  the  top  of  the  third 
with  grass,  and  weigh.  Weigh  each  can,  with  the  contents,  each 
school  day  for  about  two  weeks,  tabulating  the  results  at  the  end. 


226  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

V.    DRAINAGE 

Materials.  Two  flowerpots  with  soil,  two  pots  in  which  gera- 
niums or  other  plants  are  growing,  two  dishes  containing  water. 

Directions.  Set  one  pot  containing  a  geranium  in  a  dish  of  water. 
Plant  corn  in  two  pots  and  stand  one  of  these  in  a  dish  of  water. 
Keep  water  constantly  in  the  dishes  under  the  two  pots  indicated, 
and  water  the  remaining  two  pots  in  the  usual  way.  Note  the  effect 
of  the  excess  of  water  both  on  the  geraniums  and  on  the  germina- 
tion and  growth  of  the  corn.  In  two  weeks  empty  both  pots  con- 
taining the  corn  and  examine  the  roots  of  each. 

In  which  of  the  pots  containing  corn  do  the  roots  go  the  deeper  ? 
What  is  the  effect  of  flooding  on  field  crops  ?  on  trees  ? 

VI.   EFFECT  OF  OXYGEN  ON  GERMINATION 

Materials.    Saucers,  window  glass,  sand,  clay,  beans. 

Directions.  Fill  one  saucer  with  sand  and  one  with  clay  that  has 
the  consistency  of  putty.  The  putty  condition  of  clay  may  be  ob- 
tained by  working  over  the  clay  in  the  hands  with  water.  Plant 
10  seeds  in  each  saucer.  Moisten  the  sand  and  press  the  putty- 
like  clay  closely  over  the  beans.  Cover  each  saucer  with  a  pane  of 
glass  and  put  them  in  a  warm  place  in  the  room.  At  the  end  of 
three  or  four  days  examine  the  seeds. 

VII.   VITALITY  OF  SEEDS 

Materials.  Box  4  inches  deep  and  1 2  inches  square ;  some 
wheat,  oats,  or  other  seeds,  and  sand. 

Directions.  Pick  out  1 2  large  and  1 2  small  seeds  each  from  the 
wheat  and  oats.  Plant  in  sand,  cover  the  wheat  slightly  and  stick 
the  oats  into  the  soil  point  down,  so  that  the  top  comes  even  with 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  Sprinkle  a  little  sand  over  the  top,  and  water 
moderately  from  time  to  time.  When  the  seeds  germinate,  note  the 
relative  quickness  of  the  two  different  lots  in  germinating.  Measure 
the  height  of  each  plant,  and  record  as  in  the  corn  exercise. 


APPENDIX  227 

VIII.    LARGE  VERSUS  SMALL  SEEDS  AS  CROP  PRODUCERS 

Materials.  One  or  two  papers  of  some  turnip-shaped  variety  of 
radish  seed. 

Directions.  Prepare  the  ground  carefully,  sort  the  seeds  into  two 
lots  according  to  size,  plant  large  seeds  in  one  row  and  small  ones 
in  another.  The  rows  should  be  at  least  one  foot  apart  and  the 
seeds  one  and  one  half  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Keep  well  culti- 
vated and,  when  large  enough,  use  for  luncheon,  observing  whether 
the  large  or  the  small  seeds  give  the  better  results. 

IX.    POTATO  SCAB 

Materials.  A  dozen  scabby  potatoes,  a  small  gunny  sack,  a  ten- 
quart  pail  containing  about  two  gallons  of  water  and  one  ounce 
of  formalin. 

Directions.  Put  half  the  potatoes  in  the  sack,  mix  the  formalin 
and  water,  set  the  sack  of  potatoes  in  the  formalin-water  mixture, 
and  let  it  stand  one  and  one  half  hours. 

Grow  the  treated  and  untreated  potatoes  side  by  side  in  the 
school  garden.  Do  not  plant  where  potatoes  have  been  raised  the 
past  year,  as  the  scab  often  remains  in  the  ground  over  winter. 

X.    STUDY  OF  GROWTH  OF  MOLDS,  MILDEWS,  AND  BLIGHTS 

Materials.    Cup,  bread,  potato  or  lemon. 

Directions.  Saturate  a  piece  of  bread  with  water  and  keep  it 
under  a  cup  in  a  warm  place  for  a  few  days.  Note  the  white, 
fluffy  fibers  (mycelium)  at  the  beginning ;  later  from  these  arise 
other  fibers  which  bear  tiny,  black  bodies.  Sometimes  the  ends* 
appear  green.  These  fibers  act  in  much  the  same  way  as  do  those 
which  form  the  powdery  mildew  on  the  pear  and  grape  leaves. 
The  tufts  at  the  end  of  the  delicate  fibers  contain  spores,  which 
correspond  to  the  seeds  of  other  plants.  Mold  on  the  potato  or 
lemon  can  be  observed  in  a  like  manner. 


228  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

XI.    STUDY  OF  BACTERIA 

Materials.  Three  test  tubes,  cotton,  boiled  potato,  fruit  or  apple 
sauce,  three  apples,  one  partly  decayed. 

Directions,  (a)  Fill  each  tube  about  one  third  full  of  apple  sauce. 
Plug  each  with  cotton.  Set  one  aside.  Put  the  other  two  into  a 
pail  of  water  and  boil  for  half  an  hour.  After  boiling,  set  one  tube 
aside  with  the  cotton  undisturbed.  Take  the  cotton  from  the  third 
tube  and  leave  it  out  for  half  an  hour  or  more,  then  put  it  in  again. 
Leave  these  for  a  few  days,  note  what  happens  and  account  for 
different  results.  In  canning  fruit,  is  it  desirable  to  leave  the  fruit 
uncovered  for  a  few  minutes  after  cooking  ?  Why  ? 

(^)  Prick  one  of  the  sound  apples  in  several  places  with  a  pin. 
Put  the  pin  into  the  rotten  apple  and  then  into  the  other  sound 
apple.  Repeat  this  in  several  places.  Set  the  two  sound  apples 
aside  for  about  a  week.  Note  what  happens  and  account  for  the 
different  results. 

NOTES   ON   SOILS 

I.  SOIL  MATERIALS 

Gravel.    Coarse  rock  fragments. 

Sand.    Corresponding  in  size  to  grains  of  sugar. 

Silt.  Fine  soil  particles,  smooth  texture  (for  example,  silicon  for 
cleaning  knives). 

Clay.    The  finest  rock  particles. 

Humus.  Decaying  vegetable  and  animal  substances  (for  ex- 
ample, decaying  leaves  and  twigs). 

II.  SOIL  VARIATIONS 

Sandy  soil.  A  mixture  of  sand  and  small  amounts  of  silt,  clay, 
and  humus,  usually  poor  in  nitrogen. 

Loam  soil.  A  mixture  of  one  half  sand  with  clay  and  humus. 
Fine,  sticky.  Good  for  general  farming.  The  more  humus  the 
richer  in  nitrogen. 


APPENDIX  229 

Clay  soil.  A  mixture  of  a  large  proportion  of  clay  with  sand, 
silt,  and  humus.  Likely  to  be  supplied  with  potash  but  lacking 
in  phosphoric  acid.  Heavy,  sticky,  difficult.  Suitable  for  wheat 
and  corn. 

Muck.  Large  amount  of  humus  mixed  with  sand  and  clay ; 
dark  brown  or  black. 

III.  SOIL  FERTILITY 

A  fertile  soil  will  provide  for  roots  three  things : 

(a)  The  right  conditions  of  moisture,  heat,  and  air.    These  will 
depend  largely  on  the  texture  of  the  soil. 

(b)  Opportunity  for  the  growth  of  certain  living  organisms  in 
the  soil.    The  most  necessary  are  the  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria. 

(c)  Plant  food. 

IV.  SOIL  FEEDING 

Plants  require  seven  elements :  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potas- 
sium, magnesium,  calcium,  sulphur,  and  iron. 

The  last  four  are  in  every  soil  sufficiently  abundant,  but  nitro- 
gen, phosphorus,  and  potassium  need  to  be  made  available  or  sup- 
plied artificially. 

V.  SOURCES  OF  FOOD 

There  are  two  sources  of  food :  manures  and  commercial  fertil- 
izers. Farm  manures  include  barnyard  manure  and  green  manure. 
Barnyard  manures  are  "complete  manures."  They  contain  all  the 
necessary  elements  of  plant  foods ;  they  improve  the  texture  ;  they 
yield  heat.  Green  manures  furnish  humus.  They  return  to  the  soil 
food  that  has  been  incorporated  into  the  plant  through  its  roots 
from  the  depths  of  the  subsoil.  A  cowpea  root  can  be  traced  to 
the  depth  of  sixty-one  inches.  Nitrogen  is  supplied  by  certain 
green-  crops,  such  as  cowpeas,  beans,  clover,  and  other  legumes. 

Investigations  at  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Station  have  shown 
that  one  acre  of  cowpeas  turned  under  gives  to  the  soil  nearly 


230  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

65  pounds  of  nitrogen,  2 1  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  in 
pounds  of  potash.  (United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  16.) 

VI.    COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS   FURNISH   NITROGEN,    PHOSPHORIC 
ACID,  POTASH,  AND  LIME 

Nitrogen  is  to  be  obtained  from  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  am- 
monia, dry  fish,  cottonseed  meal,  etc. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  to  be  obtained  from  phosphate  rocks,  bones, 
fish  scraps,  etc.  . 

Potash  is  to  be  obtained  from  potash  mines.  Wood  ashes  con- 
tain potash. 

Lime  is  supplied  to  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  quicklime.  It  is 
valued  chiefly  for  its  effect  on  texture,  making  clay  soils  mealy  and 
sandy  soils  more  adhesive. 

GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 

Small  grains  —  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  —  can  easily  obtain 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  but  they  are  weak  in  obtaining  nitro- 
gen and  are  benefited,  therefore,  by  the  addition  of  nitrates. 

Legumes  collect  nitrogen  from  the  air,  but  take  from  the  soil 
lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  Hence  these  last  must  be 
supplied  by  manures. 

Root  crops  are  unable  to  use  the  insoluble  mineral  elements  in 
the  soil.  Hence  all  the  chief  elements  may  be  advantageously  ap- 
plied in  a  state  ready  for  use. 

Stem  and  leaf  crops  in  particular  require  nitrogenous  food.  A 
healthy  green  foliage  indicates  good  nourishment ;  pale  yellowish 
green  indicates  lack  of  nitrogen. 

Fruit  trees  are  slow-growing  plants  and  do  not  need  quick- 
acting  fertilizers.  Small  fruits  are  rapid-growing  plants  and  are 
benefited  by  readily  soluble  fertilizers, 


APPENDIX  231 

EXERCISES  SUITABLE  FOR  YOUNG  GARDENERS 

A  number  of  experimental  beds  were  planted  at  one  school1 
as  follows : 

(a)  Crimson  clover,  —  to  illustrate  the  immediate  effect  of  pollen 
on  fruit. 

(b)  Pea  vine,  the  successive  crops  spaded  in,  —  to  study  the  pea 
vine  as  a  nitrogen  collector. 

(c)  Pea  vine,  the  successive  crops  gathered  and  the  vines  pulled 
up,  —  to  observe  the  poverty  of  the  soil  in  nitrogen. 

(//)  Peas  treated  with  a  chemical  fertilizer,  —  to  compare  these 
crops  with  those  of  (b)  and  (c). 

(e)  Cabbage,  kale,  kohl-rabi,  collards-,  cauliflower,  and  brussels 
sprouts,  —  to  show  the  variation  obtained  from  the  ancestral  cab- 
bage by  cultivation. 

(/)  Corn  for  several  successive  years,  to  illustrate  deterioration 
in  crops  through  exhaustion  of  the  soil. 

U)  Flax. 

(A)  Grains. 

(i)  Strawberry  patch. 

BOYS'  AND   GIRLS'   CLUBS 

Boys'  and  girls'  agricultural  clubs  are  being  organized  on  all 
sides  for  corn,  cotton,  and  potato  growing  and  for  live-stock  study, 
bird  study,  and  home  culture.  All  of  these  clubs  are  more  or  less 
agricultural  in  their  general  character.  Such  a  club  is  an  associa- 
tion of  young  people  who  enter  into  competition  to  determine  which 
can  grow  the  largest  or  the  best  crop  on  a  certain  area  of  ground, 
according  to  definite  rules  for  the  planting,  cultivation,  and  exhibit 
of  their  product.  These  clubs  have,  above  all,  developed  in  boys 
and  girls  initiative  and  the  power  of  assuming  responsibility. 

Collectively  they  have  learned  the  value  of  organized  effort,  of 
cooperation,  and  of  compromise ;  and  the  social  instinct  has  been 

1  Rice  School,  Boston. 


232  GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 

developed  in  them,  —  a  matter  of  great  importance  in  rural  dis- 
tricts, where  the  isolated  condition  of  the  people  has  long  been  a 
great  hindrance  to  progress.1 

The  accompanying  letter  speaks  for  itself  in  showing  how  one 
agricultural  college  is  organizing  corn  and  potato  clubs. 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 

Department  of  Agricultural  Education 

Amherst,  Massachusetts 

To  the  Boys  and  Girls  of  Massachusetts : 

You  are  invited  to  join  a  Corn  Club  or  a  Potato  Club.  My  object  in 
asking  you  to  join  one  of  these  clubs  is  to  help  you  to  learn  more  about 
raising  corn  and  potatoes.  If  you  wish  to  join,  you  must  agree  to  plant, 
cultivate,  and  harvest  the  crop  without  any  help.  After  the  crop  is 
gathered  there  will  be  a  contest  for  premiums  for  the  best  corn  and  the 
best  potatoes. 

The  corn  and  potatoes  that  win  prizes  at  home  will  be  taken  to 
Worcester  in  November  to  compete  for  prizes  at  the"  Corn  Exposition. 
Give  your  name  and  post-office  address  to  your  teacher  or  superintendent 
*as  soon  as  you  make  up  your  mind  to  join. 

As  soon  as  your  names  are  sent  to  me  I  shall  send  you  some  direc- 
tions for  planting  and  cultivating.  Every  member  of  the  Corn  Club  will 
get  a  half-pint  of  corn,  and  every  member  of  the  Potato  Club  will  get 
three  Green  Mountain  potatoes  free. 

Very  respectfully  yours 

W.  R.  Hart 

1  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'1  Bulletin  No.  385. 


INDEX 


Addams,  Jane,  23 
Agricultural  Department,  209 
Agricultural  League,  204 
Agriculture,     advance    in,    26 ;     in 

America,  196,  208  ff. ;  in  Europe, 

201  ff. ;  new,  212  ff. 
Allston  garden,  187 
Arbor,  155 

Back  yards,  1 56  f . 

Bacon,  Sir  Francis,  67 

Barometer,  1 50 

Beans,  raising  of,  113  f. 

Bees,  147  ff. 

Beets,  raising  of,  114  f. 

Benefactors  of  the  garden,  i35ff. ; 

ladybird,  135 f.;  tiger  beetle,  136; 

ichneumon    fly,    i36f.;     dragon 

flies,  137  ;  toads,  137  ;  earthworm, 

138  ff . ;  birds,  140  f. 
"Better-Farming  Specials,"  210 
Bird  fountains,  145  ff. 
Bird  houses,  144  f. 
Birds,  I4of. ;  protection  for,  142  ff. 
Blight,  130 

Books  and  pamphlets,  21 5  f. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  130 
Briggs,  Le  Baron,  37 
Brooks,  John  Graham,  202,  204,  205 
Bulbs,  96  ff.,  1 80,  182 

Cabbage,  raising  of,  115  ff . 

Calendar,  school-garden,  iSoff. 

Cannas,  97 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  i 

Carrots,  raising  of,  117  f. 

Caterpillar,  giant  green,  125;  cab- 
bage, 132  f. 

Cauliflower,  117 

Children,  as  producers,  2  ff. 

Children's  Farm,  New  York  City, 
76,  81,  186 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  186 


Clubs,  agricultural,  231  f. 

Cold  frame,  65,  93  ff. 

Competition,  37,  38 

Composition,  correlated  with  gar- 
dening, 1 60  f.,  i66f. 

Compost  heap,  59  f. 

Cooperation,  17  ;  as  a  test  of  effi- 
ciency, 24 ;  as  a  developer  of  in- 
itiative, 25  f.,  35  ;  in  the  school,  30, 
31,  38  ff. ;  value  of,  in  employees, 
33  ;  with  the  community,  34  ;  lack 
of,  in  schools,  36  f. ;  example 
of,  53  ;  in  gardening,  69  f.,  194 ; 
against  pests,  131,  209  ;  moral  and 
social  value  of,  205 ;  natural  to 
man,  208 ;  training  children  in,  213 

Cooperative  agriculture  in  Europe, 
203  ff. 

Cooperative  dairies,  204 

Cooperative  mills,  204 

Cooperative  organization,  210 

Corn,  183 

Covers,  glass,  92  ff. 

Crocuses,  97 

Crops,  catch,  85  ;  cover,  85  ;  care  of, 
at  early  stage,  100 

Cultivation,  101  f. 

Daffodils,  97 

Dahlias,  97 

Darwin,  Charles  R.,  138,  178 

Dragon  flies,  137 

Drawing,  correlated  with  gardening, 

170 

Drills,  91 
Dust  blanket,  101 

Earthworm,  138  ff. 

Eliot,  Charles  W.,  45 

Elm  trees,  48 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  128 

Exhibits,  vegetable,  34,  183 

Experiments,  224  ff. 


233 


234 


GARDENS  AND  THEIR  MEANING 


Farm,  model,  27 

Farmer,  average,  199  ff.,  206  f. 

Farming,  intensive,  131,  197  f. 

Fertilizers,  56  f.,  230 

Freesias,  97,  181 

Fungous  diseases,  84  f.,  114,  129  f. 

Garden,  social  value  of  a,  1  1  ff  .  ;  an 
English,  158 

Garden  line,  63  f. 

Gardening,  place  of,  in  school  pro- 
gram, 15,  163  f.  ;  influence  of,  in 
schoolroom,  16;  necessity  of  or- 
ganization in,  16;  as  a  means  of 
livelihood,  34  ;  correlated  with 
other  subjects,  63,88,  i63ff.,i72  ff.; 
suitable  dress  for,  81  ;  practical 
issues  in,  161  f  ;  appeal  of,  162  f. 

Gardens,  school  ;  see  School  gardens 

Geography,  correlated  with  garden- 
ing, 1  68  f. 

Gilder,  Richard  Watson,  1  54  f. 

Gladioli,  97 

Gladstone,  William  E.,  60 

Group  work,  38  ff. 

Herbs,  126,  219 
Hodge,  Clifton  F.,  141 
Hotbed,  95  f. 
Hyacinths,  97 


Ichneumon  fly, 

Initiative,  72  ff. 

Insect  pests,  84  f.,  116,  130  ff.,  209; 
potato  beetle,  131  ;  squash  bug, 
131  ;  cabbage  caterpillar,  132  ;  hi- 
bernation of,  133  f.,  136;  corn 
worm,  134;  cucumber  beetle,  134; 
cutworm,  134  ;  rose  beetle,  134; 
tomato  worm,  134  ;  aphids,  135 

Iowa  experiment  station,  54 

Irrigation,  104  ff. 

James,  William,  212 
Kropotkin,  203,  207 

Labeling,  92,  181 
Ladybird,  I35f. 
Leguminous  plants,  58,  85 
Lettuce,  raising  of,  118  ff. 


Lima  beans,  planting,  91 
Lists  for  garden,  216  ff. 
Loam,  55 

Manuring,  green,  85 
Market  garden,  visit  to  a,  68  f. 
Marthas  Vineyard,  105 
Mathematics,    correlated    with  gar- 
dening, 63,  88,  i64f. 
Mellaerts,  Abbe,  203 
Methods  of  teaching,  modern,  176  ff. 
Mulch,  104 

Natural    history,    correlated    with 

gardening,  172  ff. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  121,  122,  123,  124 
Nitrogen,  58,  83 

Onions,  raising  of,  I2of. 
Orchard,  miniature,  109  f. 
Order,  6 

Parsley,  raising  of,  121  f. 

Pergola,  155 

Perils,  national,  209 

Phosphoric  acid,  58 

Planting,  30, 82  ff.,  180  ff. ;  economy 

in,  83  ff. ;  devices  in,  86;  depth  of, 

89  f. ;  indoor,  92  f . 
Planting  box,  90 
Planting  table,  220  ff. 
Playgrounds,  combined  with  garden, 

48  f. 

Poison,  1 1 6,  131 
Potash,  58,  83 
Potatoes,  84  f.,  130,  182 
Poultry,  149 
Powell,  George  T.,  140 
"  Pricking  out,"  94 
Proteids,  83 

Radishes,  raising  of,  122  f. 
Rain  gauge,  150 

Rice,  experiment  in  raising,  73  f. 
Rice    School,    59,    80,    170,    195, 

231 

Root,  club,  116 
Root  crops,  83 
Root  maggot,  121,  122 
Roots,  100 
Rot,  black,  116 


INDEX 


235 


Rotation  of  crops,  82  ff. 
Rust,  114,  130 

Saint-Gaudens,  66,  178 

Scab,  potato,  84  f.,  130 

School  gardens,  from  an  educational 
standpoint,  15;  definition  of,  17; 
difficulties  of,  18,  51  ;  successful 
experiments  in,  20,  39  ff.,  195; 
social  value  of,  22  ;  in  April,  30; 
ownership  of,  31  ;  cooperation  in, 
3 1 , 69  f . ;  incidental  values  of,  33  f . ; 
opportunities  in,  43  ;  suitable  sit- 
uations for,  47  f. ;  in  parks,  50  f. ; 
protection  of,  52  f. ;  laying  out  of, 
6 1  ff. ;  plan  of,  65  ;  false  ideas  of 
arrangement  in,  71  ;  surface  of, 
100  f. ;  fruit  in,  108  f. ;  accessories 
of,  142  ff. ;  borders  of,  154;  va- 
cation work  in,  183  ff. ;  record  of 
events  in,  i86f. 

School-garden  calendar,  a,  180  ff. 

Science  correlated  with  gardening, 
172  ff. 

Scillas,  98 

Seed  crops,  83 

Seeds,  27  f ;  testing,  87  f. ;  planting, 
89  ff.,  iSoff. 

Sentiment,  5 

Shaler,  Nathaniel  S.,  36 

Shrubs,  transplanting  of,  108  f. ;  vari- 
eties of,  no 

"  Skimming  the  land,"  57 

Smut,  130 

Spencer,  John  W.,  46 

Spinach,  123 

Sprays,  130,  132 

Soil,  tests  of,  54  f. ;  enrichment  of, 
56,  85  ;  preparation  of,  88  f. ;  ideal 


texture   of,    89 ;    for  cold   frame, 

94;  notes  on,  228  ff. 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  129 
Street  sweepings,  57 
Summerhouse,  155 
Sundials,  151  ff. 

Teachers,  duties  of,  22  ff.,3O,  75, 185, 
195  ;  opportunities  of,  34,  42 

Thaxter,  Celia,  108,  138 

Thistle,  Russian,  128 

Tiger  beetle,  136 

Toads,  137  f. 

Tomatoes,  123  ff. 

Tonic  for  plants,  104 

Tools,  76  ff. 

Transplanting,  94  ff.;  seedlings,  106 
ff. ;  shrubs  and  trees,  108  ff. 

Tulips,  97 

Vegetables,  112  ff . ;  beets,  84,  H4f., 
182  ;  onions,  84,  86,  120  f.,  182  ; 
parsnips, 84, 86, 117, 182  ;  potatoes 
84  f.,  130,  182  ;  turnips,  84,  85,  86, 
180;  carrots,  86,  ii7f. ;  lettuce, 
86,  94,  iiSff.,  182;  radishes,  86, 
117,  122  f.,  182;  spinach,  86,  94, 
123,180,182;  cabbage,  94,  115  ff., 
172,  182  ;  parsley,  94,  121  f.,  182  ; 
tomatoes,  94,  123  ft.,  182;  beans, 
113  f. ;  cooking  of,  171  f.;  corn, 
183 

Washington,  George,  151  f.,  165 
Watering,  science  of,  103  f. 
Weeds,  ioof.,  127  ff. 
Window  boxes,  46,  92  f. 
Woodworking,  81,  151 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


AGRICULTURE    FOR 
BEGINNERS 

By  C.  W.  BURKETT,  recently  Director  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Manhattan,  Kans;    F.  L.  STEVENS,   Professor  of  Biology  in  the 

North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  ; 

and  D.  H.  HILL,  President  of  the  North  Carolina 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts 


,  cloth,  339  pages,  with  color  pictures,  illustrated,  75  cents 


NO  book  for  common  schools  in  recent  years  has  aroused 
such  widespread  interest  and  been  so  universally  com- 
mended as  this  little  volume.  Its  adoption  in  two  great 
states  before  its  publication,  and  in  still  another  state  immediately 
after  its  appearance,  indicates  the  unusually  high  merit  of  the  work. 

The  authors  believe  that  there  is  no  line  of  separation  between 
the  science  of  agriculture  and  the  practical  art  of  agriculture,  and 
that  the  subject  is  eminently  teachable.  Theory  and  practice  are 
presented  at  one  and  the  same  time,  so  that  the  pupil  is  taught  the 
fundamental  principles  of  farming  just  as  he  is  taught  the  funda- 
mental truths  of  arithmetic,  geography,  or  grammar. 

The  work  is  planned  for  use  in  grammar-school  classes.  It  thus 
presents  the  subject  to  the  pupil  when  his  aptitudes  are  the  most 
rapidly  developing  and  when  he  is  forming  life  habits.  It  will  give 
to  him,  therefore,  at  the  vital  period  of  his  life  a  training  which 
will  go  far  toward  making  his  life  work  profitable  and  delightful. 
The  text  is  clear,  interesting,  and  teachable.  While  primarily 
intended  for  class  work  in  the  public  schools,  it  will  no  doubt 
appeal  to  all  who  desire  a  knowledge  of  the  simple  scientific  truths 
which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  most  farm  operations. 

The  two  hundred  and  eighteen  illustrations  are  unusually  excel- 
lent and  are  particularly  effective  in  illuminating  the  text.  The 
book  is  supplied  throughout  with  practical  exercises,  simple  and 
interesting  experiments,  and  helpful  suggestions.  The  Appendix, 
devoted  to  spraying  mixtures  and  fertilizer  formulas,  the  Glossary, 
in  which  are  explained  unusual  and  technical  words,  and  the 
complete  Index  are  important. 

In  mechanical  execution  —  in  the  attractive  and  durable  bind- 
ing, in  the  clear,  well-printed  page,  and  in  the  illustrations  —  the 
book  is  easily  superior  to  any  other  elementary  work  on  agriculture. 


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HODGE'S 
NATURE    STUDY    AND    LIFE 

By  CLIFTON  F.  HODGE,  Professor  of  Biology  in  Clark  University,  Worces- 
ter, Mass.    With  an  Introduction  by  Dr.  G.  STANLEY  HALL 

Cloth,  514  pages,  illustrated,  $1.50 

OUTLINE  FOR  HODGE'S  NATURE  STUDY  AND  LIFE 

Paper,  32  pages,  10  cents 

NATURE  STUDY  AND  LIFE  has  twice  formed  the  basis  for 
nature-study  courses  in  the  Clark  University  Summer  School ; 
it  has  further  stood  the  more  practical  test  of  teachers'  institutes 
in  various  states ;  and,  finally,  its  most  important  suggestions  have 
been  tried  thoroughly  in  the  schoolroom.  The  work  contains  the 
results  of  five  years'  special  study.  In  the  point  of  view,  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  subject-matter,  and  in  the  presentation  of  methods  of 
conducting  the  work,  this  book  marks  a  definite  advance  over  other 
publications  on  the  subject  of  nature  study. 

It  is  a  determined  reaction  against  the  special  and  technical,  and 
forms  an  earnest  effort  to  give  fundamental  and  universal  interests  in 
nature  their  deserved  place  in  our  system  of  public  education.  After 
presenting  this  point  of  view  clearly  in  the  opening  chapter,  the  book 
takes  up  concrete  lessons  on  the  animals  and  plants  that  form  the  nat- 
ural environment  of  the  home,  and  group  themselves  most  closely  about 
the  life  and  interests  of  the  child.  Each  form  is  studied  alive  and  at 
work,  as  a  life  story  to  be  read  at  first  hand  in  nature  and  especially  in 
its  relations  to  man. 

The  book  is  a  I2mo,  bound  attractively  in  blue  and  gold,  so  that  the 
volume  is  eminently  appropriate  in  appearance  not  only  for  the  school- 
room but  also  for  the  home  reading  table  or  bookshelf.  The  illustra- 
tions are  of  unusual  value  and  interest.  The  whole  plan  and  make-up 
of  the  book  have  been  kept  in  as  close  harmony  as  possible  with  the 
excellence  and  high  character  of  the  text  itself. 

From  the  School  Review,  Chicago 

The  publishers  do  not  overstate  the  merits  of  this  book  when  they  say  that  it  is  one 
of  the  most  notable  nature-study  books  now  published.  The  emphasis  is  upon  nature,  — 
not  upon  study,  —  and  life  is  never  sacrificed  to  some  fancied  correlation  or  some  narrow 
scientific  application.  The  illustrations  are  singularly  felicitous  in  that  they  show  us  not 
only  nature  but  also  human  nature  in  the  persons  of  interested  girls  and  boys.  This  is  a 
book  for  the  home  as  well  as  for  the  school.  It  is  scientific  in  its  knowledge,  simple 
in  its  phraseology,  and  fascinating  in  its  style. 


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THE  GULICK  HYGIENE  SERIES 

By  LUTHER  HALSEY  GULICK,  M.D. 
Recently  Director  of  Physical  Training  in  the  Public  Schools  of  New  York 


Book  I.    GOOD  HEALTH  40  cents 

HERE,  tucked  away  in  the  lines  of  an  interesting  story,  the  young  reader  finds 
out  how  to  care  for  the  eyes,  ears,  and  teeth,  how  to  get  impure  air  out  of  a 
room  and  pure  air  in,  why  he  should  go  to  bed  early  and  regularly,  and  how  to 
perform  these  duties  intelligently. 

Book  II.    EMERGENCIES  40  cents 

WHAT  to  do  in  case  of  accidents,  and  particularly  how  to  avoid  them,  is  the 
burden  of  this  second  volume. 

The  water  treatment  of  burns  and  the  soap-and-water  treatment  for  ivy  poison- 
ing are  points  of  particular  interest. 

Book  III.    TOWN  AND  CITY  50  cents 

Civic  hygiene  is  here  taught  in  a  most  alluring  manner.  Boys  and  girls  learn 
that  there  are  some  small  responsibilities  that  they  may  shoulder  at  once,  and 
thus  protect  themselves  from  the  dangers  of  impure  milk,  tuberculosis,  over- 
crowded houses,  accumulated  garbage  and  rubbish,  and  many  other  evils  of 
town  and  city  life. 

Book  IV.    THE  BODY  AT  WORK  50  cents 

"  The  Body  at  Work  "  treats  such  matters  of  physiology  as  were  too  difficult 
or  too  technical  to  be  discussed  in  "  Good  Health."  Muscular  exercise  forms 
an  avenue  of  interest  through  which  the  student  is  taught  all  necessary  knowl- 
edge and  much  that  is  new  concerning  respiration  and  digestion,  bone  and 
muscle  habits,  etc. 

Book  V.    CONTROL  OF  BODY  AND  MIND  50  cents 

"  Control  of  Body  and  Mind  "  is  written  with  the  conviction  that  such  sub- 
jects as  Attention,  Choice,  Will  Power,  Habit,  and  Character  should  be  and  can 
be  made  both  interesting  and  inspiring  to  young  people.  In  the  treatment  of 
each  subject,  function  rather  than  nerve  anatomy  receives  the  most  attention. 

Two-BooK  SERIES 

GOOD    HEALTH    (Same  as  in  the  five-book  series) 

THE  BODY  AND  ITS  DEFENSES  65  cents 

PRESENTS  the  vital  facts  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  so  arranged  as  to  follow 
the  material  in  "  Good  Health  "  and  form  a  complete  two-book  series. 


GINN  AND   COMPANY  PUBLISHERS 


AMONG    COUNTRY   SCHOOLS 

By  O.  J.   KERN 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Winnebago  County,  Illinois 
izmo,  cloth,  366  pages,  illustrated,  $1.25 


AN  OUTLINE  OF  QUESTIONS  FOR  KERN'S  AMONG 
COUNTRY  SCHOOLS.     10  cents 


THE  author's  endeavor  in  preparing  this  work  has 
been  to  create  a  new  ideal  in  the  training  of  the 
country  child. 

The  book  is  the  result  of  seven  years  of  very  earnest 
thought  and  hard  work  in  an  endeavor  to  secure  for  the 
country  child  his  rights  so  far  as  an  educational  opportunity 
is  concerned.  The  country  school  should  have  that  freedom 
which  country  life  affords.  This  book  has  but  little  to  say 
about  the  mechanics  of  school  management. 

In  the  training  of  children  and  the  development  of  char- 
acter no  greater  opportunity  can  be  offered  than  that  now 
presented  to  the  teacher  in  the  country  school.  The  author 
hopes  that  this  book  will  prove  suggestive  to  the  teacher  and 
school  officer  who  are  striving  for  the  spiritualization  of 
country  life  through  the  medium  of  the  school.  He  believes 
that  a  careful  reading  of  its  pages  will  show  a  practical  way 
of  interesting  the  "farm  child  through  farm  topics." 

Some  of  the  chapter  titles,  indicating  the  suggestions  given 
in  this  distinctly  novel  treatise,  are  : 

THE  RIGHTS   OF  THE  COUNTRY  CHILD 
OUTDOOR  ART  — BEAUTIFYING  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

INDOOR  ART  AND  DECORATION 

A  FARMER  BOY'S  EXPERIMENT  CLUB 

THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AND  THE  FARMERS'  INSTITUTE 

197 

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